Exam 2 Cognitive processes including imagery

What is the misinformation effect?

A situation where false memories for an event occur due to suggestive information provided by others.

What was the main finding of Loftus and Palmer's 1974 study?

Information presented after an event can influence subsequent retrieval of that memory, affecting both subjective and objective judgments.

What does the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure demonstrate?

It produces false memories for theme items that are related to presented items but never actually presented.

What are the two explanations for the false memories produced in the DRM procedure?

Activation-monitoring theory and fuzzy trace theory.

What does activation-monitoring theory suggest?

False memories in the DRM are caused by spreading activation and source monitoring, leading to misattribution of unpresented theme items.

What is fuzzy trace theory?

A dual-trace theory proposing that memory involves two processes: verbatim (exact features) and gist (general representation).

What are the two categories of clinical memory errors?

Immediate (sudden memory failure) and progressive (deterioration of memory over time).

What is retrograde amnesia?

A deficit for memories formed before the onset of amnesia.

What is anterograde amnesia?

A deficit for memories formed after the onset of amnesia.

Which brain region is crucial for the encoding and retrieval of explicit memories?

The hippocampus.

How does implicit memory differ from explicit memory in relation to amnesia?

Implicit memory is unaffected by deficits in conscious retrieval, allowing for unintentional retrieval of memories.

What is one common cause of progressive amnesia?

Alzheimer's disease.

What physical damage is associated with Alzheimer's disease?

Plaques and tangles that build up in the brain over time.

What is infantile amnesia?

The inaccessibility of episodic memories from early childhood as we develop past a certain age.

What are some theories explaining infantile amnesia?

An underdeveloped hippocampus, lack of appropriate schemas, and lack of language in early childhood.

What is the significance of memory errors in normally functioning memory systems?

They demonstrate that memory processes can prioritize efficiency over complete accuracy.

What happens during the encoding process in the hippocampus?

All sensory information feeds into the hippocampus, binding separate pieces of experience into a single memory.

What is the role of the hippocampus during memory retrieval?

It helps reactivate the proper pieces of the experience to reconstruct the memory.

What can cause immediate amnesia?

A brain lesion or disease leading to sudden memory deficits.

How does Alzheimer's disease affect the hippocampus?

It is particularly vulnerable to damage, leading to faster deterioration of neurons than new neurons can form.

What is the relationship between schemata and memory errors?

Schemata and prior knowledge can lead to reconstructive memory processes that may result in errors.

What is the difference between verbatim and gist memory?

Verbatim memory involves exact features, while gist memory involves a more general representation without specific details.

Transience

Decrease in the accessibility of memories over time.

Absentmindedness

Limits in attention during encoding or retrieval.

Blocking

Failure to retrieve stored information.

Misattribution

Attributing a memory to the wrong source.

Bias

Influence of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations on memory.

Persistence

Unintended, automatic retrieval of memories.

Suggestibility

Incorporating misinformation into memory due to leading questions or suggestions.

Reconstructive Memory

Memory is stored as separate pieces of an experience and retrieval involves reconnecting all of the pieces into a single memory.

Bartlett's Studies

Investigated the reconstructive nature of memory, focusing on people's ability to accurately reproduce text and figures.

Schemas

Information structured using general knowledge about a specific situation.

Scripts

A specific type of schema which involves an ordered set of actions for an event.

Interference

Occurs when new memories disrupt retrieval of previously encoded memories.

Retroactive interference

When new memories disrupt retrieval of previously encoded memories.

Proactive interference

When previously encoded memories make it difficult to encode new memories.

Source monitoring errors

Errors that occur when you incorrectly determine the source of a memory.

Reality monitoring errors

Errors that occur when you incorrectly determine whether a memory was from reality or your imagination.

Availability heuristic

ex: news reporting on car accidents

A bias to overestimate the likelihood of events which are easily accessible in memory.

Thought suppression failure

People are very poor at attempts to not think about a particular thought.

Cultural biases

Influence on memory reconstruction based on cultural context.

General knowledge

Knowledge that can be used to structure information when reconstructing a memory.

Ordered actions

The sequence of steps involved in a specific event as defined by a script.

Meaningful encoding

Organizing information so that it is encoded in a more meaningful way.

Memory reconstruction

The process of recalling memories that may involve integrating new information.

Retrieval

Process of moving information from long-term memory into short-term/working memory

Recall Tasks

Intentional retrieval that involves specific retrieval cues or not

Free Recall

One is asked to retrieve information without any additional context or retrieval cues

Cued Recall

One is asked to retrieve information and additional information is provided to help retrieve the memory

Recognition Tasks

Intentional retrieval that involves the identification of previously experienced information

Implicit Memory Tasks

Unintentional retrieval that involves implicit memory, including unconscious processes such as procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming

Prospective Memory Tasks

Intentional retrieval of information at some point in the future

Time-based prospective memory

Requires retrieval of information after a set amount of time

Event-based prospective memory

Requires retrieval of information when a certain event occurs

Factors Influencing Retrieval

The likelihood of successful retrieval is influenced by many different factors

Levels of Processing

Retrieval is more successful when the information is coded according to its meaning

Shallow Processing

Does not encode information as well as deep processing

Deep Processing

Does the word refer to a type of food?

Spacing Effect

A factor influencing retrieval related to the distribution of study sessions

Serial Position Effect

A factor influencing retrieval related to the position of an item in a list

Testing Effect

A factor influencing retrieval related to the benefits of testing on memory retention

Elaborative Encoding

Processing the meaning of the word to encode information more effectively, making retrieval easier.

Distributed Practice

Produces better encoding than massed practice (i.e., cramming) and allows for better focus on encoding the information well.

Primacy Effect

An advantage for items encoded first because there is sufficient space in working memory for elaborative encoding.

Recency Effect

An advantage for items encoded last because the information is still being held in short-term memory.

Encoding Specificity Principle

The likelihood of successful retrieval improves when the situation at encoding matches the situation during retrieval.

Environmental Context Effects

Memory is better when the physical environment at encoding matches the physical environment during retrieval.

Mood-Dependent Effects

Memory is better when your mood at encoding matches your mood during retrieval.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Memory is better when the processing at encoding matches processing during retrieval.

Flashcards

Can be effective if you are studying foreign words to define on a test, but not if you are expected to write an essay.

Memory Retrieval

Several methods of retrieval exist, depending on the goals and cues available.

Memory

Memory is a complex concept that can be defined from multiple different perspectives.

Memory Process

Memory is the mental activity used to acquire, learn, and retrieve information.

Memory Store

Memory is a location where information is kept.

Memory Trace

Memory is what holds the contents of an experience.

Metaphors for Memory

The complexity of memory can also be seen in the variety of metaphors used to describe it.

General Memory Processes

There are three primary memory processes: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

Encoding

The process of inputting information into memory.

Storage

The process of maintaining information in memory.

Retrieval

The process of outputting information from memory.

The Modal Model

Another method of describing memory is to classify processes according to their duration, also known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model or three-stage model.

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of unprocessed sensory information with a capacity of all sensory info from a specific instant and a duration of approximately 3 seconds (0.5-5 s).

Partial Report Method

A research procedure where subjects are asked to report only a portion of the information presented.

Short-Term Memory

Brief storage of information with minimal processing that is forgotten quickly without elaborative processing, with a capacity of 7 ± 2 and a duration of up to 30 seconds.

Enhancing Short-Term Memory

The capacity of short-term memory can be improved by chunking information, which is the process of organizing information into groups.

Rehearsal

The process of repeating information over and over to retain it in short-term memory.

Long-Term Memory

Potentially permanent storage of information that occurs after some elaborative processing has occurred in short-term memory, with unlimited capacity and duration.

Transfer

Process of moving information from short-term memory into long-term memory.

Types of Long-Term Memories

Includes Episodic Memory, Semantic Memory, and Procedural Memory.

Episodic Memory

Memory for a specific episode or experience in one's life.

Semantic Memory

Memory for facts or knowledge.

Procedural Memory

Memory for a skill or procedure.

The Working Memory Model

An alternative to the modal model which includes the processing of information currently the focus of attention.

Working Memory Components

Working memory includes four components: Visuospatial sketchpad, Phonological loop, Episodic buffer, and Central executive.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Component of working memory that holds visual and spatial codes of information.

Phonological Loop

Component of working memory that holds phonetic codes of information.

Episodic Buffer

Component of working memory that binds visual and verbal info with long-term semantic memory to form episodic representations.

Central Executive

Component of working memory that controls the flow of information within the system and long-term memory.

What is attention?

A cognitive process responsible for selectively concentrating on specific stimuli or information.

What metaphor describes attention as filtering irrelevant stimuli?

Attention as an information filter.