Princeton MCAT Psych/Soc Glossary Q-Z

Qualitative

descriptive, as opposed to numerical; often used to refer to data

Quantitative

numerical, as opposed to descriptive; often used to describe data

Race

the biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual

Racism

prejudices and discriminatory actions that are based on race (or ethnicity), or hold that one race (or ethnicity) is inferior to another

Randomized block technique

a technique used by researchers who wish to make experimental and control groups similar along a set of variables

Rapid eye movement (REM)

bursts of of quick eye movement present in the last stages of sleep

Rational legal authority

a form of leadership that is organized around rational legal rules

Recall

retrieving information from memory

Recency effect

a tendency to recall the last items presented in a list

Reciprocal determinism

a reciprocal interaction between a person’s behaviors, personal factors, and environmental factors

Recognition

retrieving information from memory with the use of cues

Reconstructive memory

theory that memory is constructed rather than a perfect recollection of an event

Reference group

a group that serves as a standard measure that people compare themselves to

Reflex

automatic behaviors that occur without thinking

Reflex arc

a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus

Rehearsal

technique of repeating verbal information in one;s phonological loop to prompt the encoding of sensory information into memory

Reinforcement

a consequence that increased the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; two types are positive and negative reinforcement

Reinforcement schedule

the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval)

Relative poverty

an inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

Relative refractory period

the period of time following an action potential when it is possible, but difficult for the neuron to fire a neuron to fire a second action potential

Relearning

the process of learning material that was originally learned

Reliable

the tendency of a survey or other instrument of measurement to produce similar results under similar conditions and measure what they are purported to

Religiosity

the extent that religion influences a person’s life

REM stage

final stage of sleep charcterized by rapid eye movements (REM) and beta waves, which are seen in individuals when they are awake

Replacement fertility rate

the number of children that a women or couple myst have in order to replace the number of the people in the population who die

Replicability

obtaining consisten results across various studies attempting to answer the same scientific question using different data and/or new statistical methods

Representative heuristic

a mental shortcut in which one judges the likelihood of things based on typical mental representations or examples of those things

Reproductive memory

theory that suggest memory recall occurs through storage of the original stimulus input and subsequent recall

Resource model of attention

states that if multiple tasks exceed the limit of attention, they cannot be done simultaneously

Retention interval

the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled

Reticular formation (Reticular Activating System)

structures in the brainstem that are important factors for alertness and arousal (as in wakefulness)

Retina

the innermost layer of the eyeball; made up of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells

Retroactive interference

a type of memory interference that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously

Retrograde amnesia

occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded

Rods

photoreceptors in the retina that respond to dim light and provide black and white vision

Carl Rodgerrs

considered the founder of humanistic psychology who pioneered the person centered approach to therapy

Role conflict

occurs when there is a conflict in society’s expectations for multiple statues held by the same person (ex. “male “ and “nurse”)

Role conflict

occurs when there is a conflict in society’s expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person

Role exit

the process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self identity to take on a new role

Role strain

occurs when a single status results in conflicting expectations

Saltatory conduction

a rapid form of neural conduction in which the action potential “jumps” along nodes of Ranvier

Sample size

the number of participants in a study

Sampling bias

occurs when some individuals from a population have a greater likelihood of being selected than others

Sanctions

rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

Scapegoat

the people or group who are unfairly blamed for something or at whom displaced aggression is directed

Schachter Singer Theory

theory of emotion that asserts that the experience of physiological arousal occurs first and is followed by a conscious cognitive interpretation that allows for identification of the emotion

Schemas

mental frameworks or blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience

Schizoaffective disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms

Schizoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members

Schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and impairment in functioning

Schizophreniform disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1 to 6 months, during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning

Schizotypal personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by constricted or inappropriate affect, magical, or paranoid thinking, and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions

Schwann cell

one of the two peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells; these form myelin sheath on axons of peripheral neurons

Sclera

the white portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball

Secondary group

a larger and more impersonal group than a primary group, which interacts for specific reasons for relatively short periods of time

Secondary reinforcers

conditioned reinforcers that are learned though their relationship with primary reinforcers

Sect

a religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it formed

Secure attachment

an attachment style that forms when an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs

Selection bias

nonrandom processes in the selection of participants, experimental groups, or any other process that introduce potential bias into a research study

Selective attention

the process by which one input is selected out of the field of environmental stimuli

Selective priming

predisposition to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently

Self actualization (actualizing tendency)

according to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to realize their human potential

Self concept (self identity)

the sum of an individual’s knowledge and understanding of his or herself

Self consciousness

awareness of one’s self

Self efficacy

the belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness

Self esteem

one’s overall self evaluation of one’s self worth

Self fulfilling prophecy

when stereotypes of one’s self worth lead a person to behave in such a way as to affirm the original stereotypes

Self handicapping

a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self blame when they do poorly

Self reference effect

the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

Self schemas

the belief and ideas people have about themselves

Self serving bias

the tendency to attribute our success to ourselves and our failures to others or the external environment

Self verification

social psychology theory that individuals wish to be understood in terms of their deeply held beliefs in a way that is consistent with their self concept

Semantic memory

memory for factual information

Semicircular canals

three loop like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance

Sensitization

an increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentations of a stimulus

Sensory memory

the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system; this is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays

Serial position effect

when information is presented in a list, individuals are more likely to recall the first and last item presented

Shaping

in operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate, proximal behaviors until a final, desired behavior is achieved

Short term memory

memory that is limited in duration and capacity

Signal detection theory

a theory that attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (considered the “noise”)

Significant difference

a difference between two measurements that is unlikely to be due simply to change, according to a predetermined threshold

B.F. Skinner

Founder of behaviorism who measured the effects of reward and punishment on shaping behavior

Sleep apnea

sleep disorder in which the individual intermittently stops breathing during sleep and may wake up gasping for breath

Sleep cycle

one progression through sleep stages 1 through 4 in sequence followed by an ascension from 4 back to 1 and then a transition into REM sleep. Typically takes about ninety minutes

Sleep spindle

bursts of waves present in Stage 2 sleep

Social behaviorism

the idea that the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others

Social capital

the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility

Social cognition

the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception

Social cognition perspective

according to this perspective, personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors

Social constructionism

a sociological theory that argues that reality is constructed, not inherent

Social cues

verbal or nonverbal hints that guide social interactions

Social dysfunction

a process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society

Social epidemiology

the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness

Social facilitation effect

the phenomenon that describes how people tend to perform simple, well learned tasks better when other people are present, while difficult, novel tasks are performed more poorly in front of others

Social facts

the elements that serve some function in society, such as the laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up a society

Social identity

the social definitions of self, including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like

Social institutions

a complex of roles, norms, and values, organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people

Social loafing

the phenomenon where people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable

Social mobility

the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system

Social network

a web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked as well as indirectly connected to people