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mercenary
a soldier who fights primarily for pay
republic
a form of government in which the leader is not a king and certain citizens have the right to vote
burgher
a member of the middle class who lived in a city or town
humanism
an intellectual movement of the Renaissance based on the study of the humanities, which included grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy, and history
vernacular
the language of everyday speech in a particular region
perspective
artistic techniques used to give the effect of three-dimensional depth to two-dimensional surfaces; viewpoint
Christian humanism
a movement that developed in northern Europe during the Renaissance combining classical learning (humanism) with the goal of reforming the Catholic Church
salvation
the state of being saved (that is, going to heaven) through faith alone or through faith and good works
indulgence
a release from all or part of punishment for sin by the Catholic Church, reducing time in purgatory after death
justification
the process of being justified, or deemed worthy of salvation, by God
predestination
the belief that God has determined in advance who will be saved (the elect) and who will be damned (the reprobate)
caravel
a small, fast Spanish or Portuguese sailing ship of the 15th–17th centuries.
conquistador
a leader in the Spanish conquest of the Americas
colony
a settlement of people living in a new territory, linked with the parent country by trade and direct government control
mercantilism
a set of principles that dominated economic thought in the seventeenth century; it held that the prosperity of a nation depended on a large supply of gold and silver
plantation
a large agricultural estate
Middle Passage
the forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas
peninsulare
a person born on the Iberian Peninsula; typically, a Spanish or Portuguese official who resided temporarily in Latin America for political and economic gain and then returned to Europe
creole
a person of European descent born in Latin America and living there permanently
mestizo
a person of mixed European and Native American descent
mulatto
a person of mixed African and European descent
encomienda
a system of labor the Spanish used in the Americas; Spanish landowners had the right, as granted by Queen Isabella, to use Native Americans as laborers
mita
a labor system that the Spanish administrators in Peru used to draft native people to work in the Spanish landowners’ silver mines
heretic
one who does not conform to established doctrine
armada
a fleet of warships
inflation
a rapid increase in prices
divine right of kings
the belief that the kings receive their power from God and are responsible only to God
Puritans
English Protestants who felt that the Church of England needed further reform and sought to simplify and regulate forms of worship
Cavaliers
supporters of King Charles I in the English Civil War
Roundheads
supporters of the Parliament in the English Civil War
natural rights
rights with which all humans are born, including the rights to life, liberty, and property
absolutism
a political system in which a ruler holds total power
czar
Russian for caesar; the title used by Russian emperors
boyar
a Russian noble
Mannerism
an artistic movement that emerged in Italy in the 1520s and 1530s; it marked the end of the Renaissance by breaking down the principles of balance, harmony, and moderation
Baroque
an artistic style of the seventeenth century characterized by complex forms, bold ornamentation, and contrasting elements
geocentric
Earth-centered; a system of planetary motion in which the sun, moon, and other planets revolve around the Earth
heliocentric
sun-centered; the system of the universe in which the Earth and planets revolve around the sun
universal law of gravitation
one of Newton’s three rules of motion; it explains that planetary bodies continue in elliptical orbits around the sun because every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity
rationalism
a system of thought expounded by René Descartes based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge
scientific method
a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence that was crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world
inductive reasoning
the doctrine that scientists should proceed from the particular to the general by making systematic observations and carefully organized experiments to test hypotheses or theories, a process that will lead to correct general principles
philosophe
French for “philosopher”; applied to all intellectuals during the Enlightenment
separation of powers
a form of government in which the executive, legislative, and judicial branches limit and control each other through a system of checks and balances
deism
an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based on reason and natural law
laissez-faire
the concept that the state should not impose government regulations but should leave the economy alone
social contract
the concept proposed by Rousseau that an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will, and all individuals should be forced to abide by the general will since it represents what is best for the entire community
salons
the elegant urban drawing rooms where, in the eighteenth century, writers, artists, aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy middle-class people gathered to discuss the ideas of the philosophes
rococo
an artistic style that replaced baroque in the 1730s; it was highly secular, emphasizing grace, charm, and gentle action
enlightened absolutism
a system in which rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their full royal powers
successors
ones who follow, especially ones who take over a throne, title, estate, or office
consulate
the government established in France after the overthrow of the Directory in 1799, with Napoleon as first consul in control of the entire government
nationalism
the unique cultural identity of a people based on common language, religion, and national symbols
conservatism
a political philosophy based on tradition and social stability, favoring obedience to political authority and organized religion
liberalism
a political philosophy originally based largely on Enlightenment principles, holding that people should be as free as possible from government restraint and that civil liberties—the basic rights of all people—should be protected
capital
money available for investment
industrial capitalism
an economic system based on industrial production or manufacturing
socialism
a system in which society, usually in the form of the government, owns and controls the means of production
militarism
the reliance on military strength
abolitionism
a movement to end slavery
conscription
military draft
mobilization
the process of assembling troops and supplies and making them ready for war
trench warfare
fighting from ditches protected by barbed wire, as in WWI
war of attrition
a war based on wearing down the other side with constant attacks and heavy losses, such as World War I
total war
a war that involved the complete mobilization of resources and people, affecting the lives of all citizens in the warring countries, even those remote from the battlefield
soviet
Russian councils composed of representatives from the workers and soldiers
war communism
in World War I Russia, the government control of banks and most industries, the seizing of grain from peasants, and the centralization of state administration under Communist control
abdicate
to formally give up control of a country or state
armistice
a truce or an agreement to end fighting
reparation
a payment made to the victor by the vanquished to cover the costs of war
mandate
a territory temporarily governed by another nation on behalf of the League of Nations
fascism
a political philosophy that glorifies the state above the individual by emphasizing the need for a strong central government led by a dictatorial ruler
collectivization
a system in which private farms are eliminated and peasants work land owned by the government
demilitarized
elimination or prohibition of weapons, fortifications, and other military installations
appeasement
satisfying reasonable demands of dissatisfied powers in an effort to maintain peace and stability
sanctions
restrictions intended to enforce international law
blitzkrieg
German for “lightning war”; a swift and sudden military attack; used by the Germans during World War II
blitz
the British term for the German air raids on British cities and towns during World War II
isolationism
a policy of national isolation by abstention from alliances and other international political and economic relations
neutrality
the refusal to take sides or become involved in wars between other nations
genocide
the deliberate mass murder or physical extinction of a particular racial, political, or cultural group
collaborator
a person who assists the enemy
partisan
a resistance fighter in WWII
satellite state
a country that is economically and politically dependent on another country
arms race
building up armies and stores of weapons to keep up with an enemy
deterrence
during the Cold War, the U.S. and Soviet policies of holding huge arsenals of nuclear weapons to prevent war; each nation believed that neither would launch a nuclear attack since both knew that the other side could strike back with devastating power
proxy war
a war in which the powers in conflict use third parties as substitutes instead of fighting each other directly
domino theory
the idea that if one country falls to communism, neighboring countries will also fall
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