Psychology Unit 1 Exam

AOS 1

AOS 1

Influences of Hereditary Factors:

Hereditary factors, like genes, can influence traits such as personality, intelligence, and vulnerability to mental disorders

Environmental Factors Contribution:

Environmental factors, such as family, culture, and life experiences, shape a person’s behaviours, attitudes, and skills.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate:

Nature: argues that genes and biology are the main influences on development.

Nurture: emphasizes how upbringing and experiences shape an individual.

What is the relationship between nature versus nurture?

Nature refers to our genetic inheritance, while nurture encompasses environmental influences on development, together they shape our individual traits and behaviour

Biopsychosocial Approach:

This approach looks at how biological, psychological, and social factors all work together to influence mental development and well-being.

Cultural Influence on Social Development or what are cultural norms?: Cultural and Social Norms Influence:

Culture shapes social norms, values, and behaviours, affecting how children interact and develop socially.

Culture and social norms can affect what is considered typical behaviour, changing how behaviours are interpreted by different communities.

Define genetic predisposition

Genetic predisposition is an increased likelihood of developing a disease due to the genes we have inherited.

What is development?

Is the study of how individuals grow, change, and adapt physically, cognitively, socially and emotionally throughout their lifespan from infancy to old age

Process of Psychological development Across the Lifespan:

Psychological development includes emotional growth (like forming relationships), cognitive skills (like problem-solving), and social abilities (like interacting with others) at different life stages.

• Emotional Growth: Emotional growth involves understanding and managing feelings, leading to healthier relationships and greater empathy for others.

• Cognitive Skills: Cognitive skills encompass the ability to think, learn, reason, and solve problems, which develop progressively through education and experience.

• Social Abilities: Social abilities refer to the skills needed for effective communication and interaction with others, fostering connections and teamwork throughout life.

Harlow's Monkey Experiment:

Harlow used baby monkeys with two surrogate mothers to show that contact comfort, not just feeding, is vital for forming emotional attachment.

What is assimilation and accommodation in relation to Piaget’s theory?

In Piaget’s theory, assimilation involves incorporating new information into existing schemas, while accommodation requires altering those schemas to accommodate new information

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:

• Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learning through senses and actions.

• Preoperational (2-7 years): Use of symbols and imaginative play; egocentrism.

• Concrete Operational (7-12 years): Logical thinking; understanding conservation.

• Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract thinking and problem-solving.

Object Permanence (sensorimotor stage):

In the sensorimotor stage, infants learn that objects continue to exist even when they can't see them.

For example, if a parent hides a toy under a blanket while the baby is watching, the infant might initially think the toy has vanished. However, as they grow older and develop object permanence, the baby will start to look for the toy under the blanket, understanding that it is still there even though they can't see it.

Egocentrism (pre-operational stage):

Egocentrism occurs in the pre-operational stage when children cannot see things from another person's perspective.

Example: If a child is playing hide-and-seek and hides behind a curtain, they might believe that since they can't see the seeker, the seeker can't see them either. In this situation, the child is unable to understand that the seeker has a different viewpoint.

Conservation in Concrete Operational Stage:

Conservation means understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance, like knowing water in different containers is still the same amount.

Abstract Thinking at Formal Operational Stage:

At this stage, individuals can think logically about abstract concepts, while earlier stages focused on concrete details.

For example, a teenager in the formal operational stage can understand the concept of justice, discussing its implications in society, rather than only thinking about fair treatment in specific situations. They can analyse hypothetical scenarios about law and ethics, showing an ability to reason abstractly rather than relying solely on tangible experiences.

What are the progressions or accomplishments of pre-operational stage?

During the pre-operational stage, children develop

• symbolic thinking

• imaginative play

• egocentrism while improving language skills.

What are the progressions or accomplishments of concrete operational stage?

During the concrete operational stage (ages 7-12)

• children develop logical thinking

• understand conservation of properties

• improve classification skills.

What is transformation and centration?

Transformation is the ability to recognize that an object's appearance can change without altering its quantity, while centration is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation, ignoring others.

What is reversibility?

Reversibility in psychology refers to the understanding that actions or operations can be reversed to return to the original state.

Identify the stages of lifespan development?

The stages of lifespan development are:

• Infancy: Up to 2 years

• Childhood: 2 – 10 years

• Adolescence: 10 – 20 years

• Early adulthood: 20 – 40 years

• Middle age: 40 – 65 years

• Older age: 65+ years

Define emotional development

What does emotional development focus on? What are  the 2 experiments that link to it?

Emotional development involves how feelings are formed, expressed, and understood, with key studies including Ainsworth's 'Strange Situation' on attachment types and Harlow's monkey experiment highlighting the importance of contact comfort over feeding in attachment.

Sensitive vs. Critical Periods:

Sensitive periods are times when a person is more open to learning certain things. (e.g. Learning a second language easily before age 7.)

Critical periods are specific times when certain skills must be developed or they may not be learned at all. (e.g. Developing sight; if visual input is absent early on, normal vision may not develop.)

How does Genie related to sensitive and critical periods in psychological development?

Define typical behaviour. Include example

Define atypical behaviour. Include example

Typical behaviour is culturally appropriate and generally aligns with societal norms, such as a Texan keeping a gun for protection after local break-ins.

Atypical behaviour is culturally inappropriate or significantly impairs functioning, like a family man on minimum wage gambling $500,000 within a week.

What are the 5 questions that get asked to identify if a behaviour is typical or atypical?

• Is it culturally appropriate?

• Is it statistically rare?

• Does it cause personal distress?

• Is it maladaptive?

• Does it violate social norms?

Examples of Adaptive and Maladaptive:

Adaptive: Seeking help during stress; healthy coping mechanisms.

Maladaptive: Avoiding responsibilities; substance abuse.

DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) Criteria Advantages and Limitations:

Advantages: Helps diagnose disorders; provides clear criteria for understanding behaviours.

Limitations: May not capture individual differences; can label normal variations as disorders.

Define Neurotypicality, neurodiversity and normality

Normality refers to behaviours and thoughts that are typical in society, while neurotypicality describes brain functions that fit societal norms. Neurodiversity is the idea that variations in brain development (like ASD or ADHD) are normal and should be respected as part of human diversity.

Characteristics of Neurodiverse Disorders:

ASD: Difficulty with social interactions, repetitive behaviours, and focused interests.

ADHD: Inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.

Define imprinting

Imprinting is a rapid form of attachment observed in young animals, like ducklings, where they follow the first moving object they see, typically their mother, during a critical learning period.

Psychologists vs. Psychiatrists:

Psychologists mainly provide therapy, while psychiatrists can prescribe medications and treat mental health conditions medically.

What are the benefits of a psychologist in supporting mental wellbeing?

A psychologist helps improve mental wellbeing by providing

• tools

• support

• and strategies for coping with challenges.

AOS 2

AOS 2

What are some of the historical approaches to understanding the brain?

Brain vs. Heart Debate: This debate asks whether the heart or brain controls our thoughts and feelings. Today, we know the brain is in charge. 

Mind - Body problem: This question looks at whether the mind and body are separate or part of the same thing, impacting psychology and neuroscience. 

Phrenology: An old theory claimed that skull shape could show personality and intelligence. It has been disproven and is now seen as a pseudoscience.

Which scans are structural, which are functional?

Structural brain scans like CT and MRI show detailed pictures of the brain's structure and any problems. Functional scans, such as PET and fMRI, show brain activity by highlighting which areas are active during different tasks based on blood flow and oxygen use.

How does each Brain scan work?

CT Scan: Uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain from various angles, to show it’s structure

MRI: Uses strong magnets to capture detailed brain images without harmful radiation.

PET Scan: Injects a radioactive glucose solution to measure brain activity based on glucose usage during tasks.

fMRI: Measures blood oxygen changes in the brain during tasks over time.

EEG: Records real-time electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp

What are the advantages and disadvantages of each brain scan?

CT Scan:

-          Advantage: Quick and clear images of the brain.

-          Disadvantage: Uses radiation and shows limited brain function.

MRI:

-          Advantage: Detailed images without radiation.

-          Disadvantage: Takes longer and not safe for those with metal implants or claustrophobia.

PET Scan:

-          Advantage: Shows brain activity using glucose.

-          Disadvantage: Uses radioactive materials, which can be risky.

fMRI:

-          Advantage: Shows real-time brain activity by monitoring blood flow.

-          Disadvantage: Not as good as EEG for measuring electrical activity quickly.

EEG:

-          Advantage: Non-invasive and shows electrical activity quickly.

-          Disadvantage: Hard to find exactly where in the brain the activity happens.

What structures are located in the Hindbrain?

The hindbrain consists of the

Medulla

• Controls breathing

• Regulates heart rate

Pons

• Helps coordinate movement

• Regulates sleep and arousal

Cerebellum

• Controls fine muscle movements

• Helps with posture and balance

Where is the medulla located and what are its functions?

-        Location: The medulla is at the base of the brainstem.

-        Function: It controls important body processes like breathing and heart rate, and reflex actions like swallowing and coughing.

Where is the pons located and what are its functions?

-        Location: The pons is above the medulla and below the midbrain in the brainstem.

-        Function: It helps with sleep, coordinating muscle movements, and controls other important body functions.

Where is the cerebellum located and what are its functions?

-        Location: The cerebellum is at the back of the brain.

-        Function: It helps coordinate movements, keep balance, and learn new movements.

What structure is located in the midbrain and what are the functions of the reticular formation?

-        Location: The reticular formation is in the midbrain.

-        Function: It controls alertness and how we pay attention to things we sense.

What structures are located in the forebrain?

The forebrain includes the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus.

-          Cerebrum (top part of the brain): The largest part of the brain, responsible for thinking, learning, and memory.

-          Thalamus (middle of the brain): A sensory relay that sends information to the right parts of the brain.

-          Hypothalamus (below the thalamus): Regulates body functions like hunger, thirst, and temperature.

Where are the 4 lobes located and what are the basic functions of each?

-          Frontal Lobe (Boss of the Brain): Responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, personality.

-          Temporal Lobe (Memory Bank): Stores memories, processes sounds (like language and music), and helps with imagination.

-          Occipital Lobe (Movie Screen): Processes visual information like what we see and helps us recognizes faces, and helps us read.

-          Parietal Lobe (Body's GPS System): Understands movement, coordination and space, processes touch and temperature

Where is the Primary Motor cortex located and what is its function?

-        Location: The Primary Motor Cortex is at the back of the frontal lobe

-        Function: It controls voluntary body movements.

Where is the Primary Somatosensory cortex located and what is its function?

-          Location: The Primary Somatosensory Cortex is at the front of the parietal lobes.

-          Function: It processes sensory information from the skin and sense organs, helping us feel touch, temperature, pain, and body position.

Where is Broca’s Area located and what is its function?

• Location of Broca’s Area: Broca’s Area is found in the left front part of the brain.

• Function of Broca’s Area: It helps us produce speech and understand language.

Where is Wernicke’s Area located and what is its function?

-         Location of Wernicke’s Area: Wernicke’s Area is in the left temporal lobe of the brain.

-         Function of Wernicke’s Area: It helps people understand speech and language, both when listening and reading.

Where is hemispheric specialisation?

Hemispheric specialization means one side of the brain is better at certain tasks.

• The left side is connected to language and analysis,

• While the right side is more about creativity and spatial skills.

What is contralateral function?

Contralateral function means each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body:

• the left side manages the right side, and the right side manages the left side.

What is a neuron?

A neuron is a nerve cell that helps the nervous system send messages using electrical signals.

What structures are involved in sending an electrical impulse down an neuron?

-          Dendrites: They receive signals from other neurons.

-          Soma (Cell Body): It processes the information from dendrites and keeps the neuron running.

-          Axon: This long tube sends the electrical signal away from the soma to other neurons.

-          Myelin Sheath: A fatty layer around the axon that speeds up the signal and keeps it clear from other signals.

-          Axon Terminals: They release chemicals (neurotransmitters) to communicate with nearby neurons.

How do neurons communicate with other neurons across a synapse?

Neurons communicate by sending signals across a gap called a synapse, releasing neurotransmitters that attach to receptors on the next neuron's dendrites.

What is neuroplasticity?

Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to change based on experiences, learning, and injuries.

The three types of neuroplasticity are experience expectant (development), experience dependent (learning), adaptive

There are three types of neuroplasticity:

- Experience expectant (development): The brain's development relies on specific experiences to happen during critical stages of growth.

- Experience dependent (learning): The brain adapts its structure based on individual learning and practice experiences, like in musicians who practice a lot may have certain areas that are bigger.

- Adaptive: The brain forms new connections to compensate for injuries, especially in younger individuals.

What is the relationship between age and neuroplasticity?

Neuroplasticity is stronger in younger people because their brains can adapt and form new connections more easily than in older adults. This is because younger brains are still developing and learning.

Define a brain injury

A brain injury is any damage to the brain that disrupts its normal functioning, which can result from various causes like trauma, stroke, or disease.

What is an acquired brain injury? Give examples

An acquired brain injury (ABI) is damage to the brain that occurs after birth due to external factors, such as trauma from an accident, stroke, or infections.

What is a Traumatic brain injury? Give examples

A traumatic brain injury (TBI) happens when an outside force hits the brain, like during a fall, car accident, or sports injury, leading to problems with physical abilities, thinking, or emotions.

What is the difference between Traumatic and Acquired brain injury?

An acquired brain injury (ABI) is brain damage that happens after birth due to things like strokes, infections, or lack of oxygen. A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a type of ABI caused by a hard hit to the head, like from a fall or car accident, leading to physical, thinking, or emotional problems.

What are some of the biological changes that might occur with someone with acquired brain injury?

Biological changes in someone with an acquired brain injury can include changes in brain connections, loss of brain cells, altered brain chemicals, and problems with thinking and movement. They may also experience physical disabilities and trouble moving.

What are some of the psychological changes that might occur with someone with acquired brain injury?

Psychological changes in someone with a brain injury can include mood swings, different personality traits, and problems with thinking and emotions.

What are some of the social changes that might occur with someone with acquired brain injury?

Social changes from a brain injury can include trouble communicating, issues with relationships, and challenges in social interactions. This may lead to difficulties in forming connections and different social behaviours.

What is Broca’s aphasia?

Broca's aphasia is a language disorder that makes it hard for a person to speak clearly, but they can understand language well.

What is Wernicke’s Aphasia?

Wernicke's aphasia is a language disorder where a person can't understand or create meaningful speech, leading to smooth but nonsensical sentences.

What’s the difference between Broca and Wernicke’s Aphasia?

Broca’s aphasia is characterized by making it hard to speak, while Wernicke’s aphasia makes it hard to understand speech.

What is epilepsy?

Epilepsy is a brain disorder that causes seizures due to unusual electrical activity in the brain.

Common causes for epilepsy

Common causes of epilepsy include genetics, brain injuries, strokes, infections, and developmental disorders.

Common triggers for epilepsy

Epilepsy triggers can include stress, not getting enough sleep, flashing lights, some medications, alcohol, and hormonal changes.

Define CTE

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a brain disease that gets worse over time and is caused by repeated head injuries. It affects thinking, movement, and emotions.

What happens to the brain when someone has a concussion?

A concussion happens when the brain is shaken hard, causing symptoms like dizziness, confusion, and nausea.

What are the symptoms of CTE?

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) can cause headaches, memory problems, anxiety, depression, and serious issues with thinking and language in advanced stages. Symptoms, like mood changes and cognitive decline, can appear at different times after an injury and not everyone with CTE will experience them.

How is CTE diagnosed?

CTE is diagnosed by checking medical history, mental tests, neurological exams, brain scans, and is confirmed by an autopsy after death. It can be hard to diagnose and is often only confirmed after someone has died.

What is the treatment for CTE?

CTE treatment mainly includes supportive therapies like behavioral therapy, pain management, regular exercise, good nutrition, and memory exercises. There is no cure, so the goal is to manage the symptoms.

Stages of CTE

1. Stage 1 – People may feel headaches, struggle to focus, and forget things more easily. 🤕💭

2. Stage 2 – Mood changes happen, like feeling anxious or depressed, getting angry more easily, or struggling to control emotions. 😟😠

3. Stage 3 – Thinking and decision-making become harder, memory worsens, and people feel less motivated. 🧩🔄

4. Stage 4 – Severe memory loss, difficulty speaking, psychiatric symptoms, and trouble moving can affect daily life. 🔄🚶‍♂

CTE develops over time, often after repeated head injuries. Understanding these stages helps identify early signs and support those affected.

AOS 3

AOS 3

What is the independent variable (IV) in a study?

the things that changes (amount of water you give a plant)

What is dependent variable (DV), and how is it measure?

the thing you measure (how tall the plant grows)

What is an experimental conditions, and how does it differ form a control conditions?

An experimental condition is where something is changed to test its effects, while a control condition stays the same to compare results.

Example: One group listens to music while studying (experimental), and another studies in silence (control)

What is an extraneous variable (EV), and how can it affect the results?

the things you try to keep the same so it doesn’t affect the results (the type of soil used)

What are different categories of Extraneous variables?

Types:

• Participant variables – differences in age, personality, or experience. 👩‍🎓✨

• Situational variables – changes in time of day, temperature, or noise levels. ⏰🔆

• Demand characteristics – hints that make participants guess what the study is about. 🤔🔍

• Experimenter effects – when the researcher’s actions influence results. 👩‍🏫🧐

• Order effects – practice or boredom when repeating tasks. 🏃💤

How does extraneous variables affect the validity of an experiment?

Extraneous variables can make an experiment less accurate because they may change the results in unexpected ways. If they are not controlled, it becomes unclear whether the changes were caused by the independent variable or something else.

What is a hypothesis and how is it structured?

A hypothesis is a guess you make about what will happen in an experiment, and you test to see if it’s correct

What are the 3 types of research design?

Between Subjects – Each participant is randomly allocated to one condition only (group/control) (e.g. One group drinks coffee ☕ and another drinks water 💧 to test their reaction speed.)

Within Subjects – Each participant is involved in all conditions (repeated experiment with both conditions) (e.g. The same group of people first drinks coffee ☕ and later drinks water 💧 to compare their own reaction speed.)

Mixed Design -  Combines features of both the between and within subject designs (e.g. Different groups drink coffee or water ☕💧, but everyone does both a morning and evening test to compare time of day effects.)

What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of each research design?

• Between Subjects

✅ Advantage: No risk of practice effects (tiredness) since each person only does one test.

❌ Disadvantage: Needs more participants to compare groups fairly.

• Within Subjects

✅ Advantage: Fewer participants needed because each person tests everything.

❌ Disadvantage: Results may be affected by practice or tiredness.

• Mixed Design

✅ Advantage: Gets the benefits of both designs for a well-rounded study.

❌ Disadvantage: More complex to plan and analyze.

How is a sample different from a population?

A sample is a small group chosen from a population, which is the entire group being studied.

Example: If you survey 10 students in a school of 500, the 10 students are the sample, and all 500 students are the population.

What is random sampling, and how does it ensure representativeness?

Random sampling is when people are chosen by chance so everyone has an equal chance of being picked.

This ensures the sample represents the whole population fairly without bias!

What is a biased sample, and how does it affect generalisability?

A biased sample is when a group in a study does not fairly represent the whole population. This makes it harder to apply the results to everyone because the sample is not accurate.

What is stratified sampling, and how does it work?

Stratified sampling is when a population is divided into smaller groups based on shared characteristics, like age or gender.

Then, people are randomly chosen from each group to make sure the sample represents the whole population fairly.

What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data?

Quantitative data is information with numbers that can be counted or measured, while qualitative data describes qualities, opinions, or characteristics using words instead of numbers.

What is the difference between subjective and objective data?

Subjective data is based on personal opinions, feelings, or experiences, while objective data is fact-based and can be measured or observed without bias.

What is the difference between primary and secondary data?

Primary data is collected directly through experiments, surveys, or observations, while secondary data is information gathered by someone else and used for research.

What are case studies, and what are they used?

A case study is a detailed investigation of a specific event, person, or problem to understand real-world complexities.

Types:

• Historical case studies – Analyse past events to learn from them (e.g., Phineas Gage’s brain injury). 🏛

• Real-life case studies – Study actual situations to make recommendations (e.g., Genie, the Wild Child). 👶

• Problem-solving case studies – Develop new ideas or methods for unique challenges. 💡

They are used when researchers have limited participants, study rare experiences, or cannot run a controlled experiment for ethical reasons.

What are the measures of central tendency?

Measures of central tendency describe the middle or typical value in a set of data, using the mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value).

What is a conclusion, and how is it based on data?

A conclusion is a statement about the findings of a study that shows whether the evidence supports the hypothesis. It is based on patterns in the data and explains how the independent variable affected the dependent variable.

What is the difference between reproducibility and repeatibility?

Repeatability means getting the same results when an experiment is repeated under the same conditions, while reproducibility means getting similar findings when the study is done under different conditions (different setting etc) by another researcher.

What is the meaning of the term ‘Internal Validity’?

Internal validity means that a study accurately measures what it is supposed to measure, without being affected by outside factors like confounding variables.

What is the meaning of the term ‘External Validity’?

External validity is about whether the results of a study can apply to similar individuals in different settings, making sure the findings represent the broader population.