Master methods

Magnetic resonance imagining (MRI)

• Looks at the structure of brain

• Measure of hydrogen over areas in brain

• Part of brain with more hydrogen appear brighter 

  • Contrast depends on amount of hydrogen

• Expensive → liquid helium needed to maintain cool temp

functional magnetic resonance imagining (fMRI)

• measures brain activity in secs

• BOLD → assesses changes in blood flow and oxygenation in response to neuronal activity

  • more oxygen to activated area = increased signal

BOLD

• Blood oxygenated level dependent

• reflects changes in brain blood oxygenation

Reverse inference

• infering engagement of cognitive processes due to brain areas being activated

validity of reverse inference

• validity depends on selectivity

  • multiple associations decrease validity

    • inference is weaker

  • singular association increases validity

example of reverse inference

• Fusiform face (FFA) is highly selective for faces

  • infer that a face must have been processed because FFA was activated

strengths of fMRI & MRI

• safest

• highest spatial resolution

• superior temporal resolution to PET

limitations of fMRI & MRI

• blood flow changes is slow limiting associations

  • blood flow response peaks around after neural activity starts

  • lag between brain activity & detection

• Inferior temporal resolution to EEG

• claustrophobic

• loud (unable to use audio stimuli/record vocal)

causality

• all have issues with it

• difficult to be certain if areas are necessary for given tasks

  • activations can co-occur

  • activation ≠ area causes it/essential for process

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

• uses a magnetic field to induce electric currents in brain

• currents change neural excitability disrupting brain function/disorganised behaviour

  • similar to a lesion but mild & reversible

• allows researchers to explore how specific brain areas contribute to cognitive processes

Strengths of TMS

• Potential to determine causation

• excellent temporal resolution

  • short-pulse = precise measure

• high spatial resolution

  • anatomically more selective than lesion

• reversible

Limitation of TMS

• Limited to surface of brain (cortex)

  • TMS cannot reach subcortical

• sensation of stimulation

  • fixed using control site

• noise

  • loud clicking noise

Temporal resolution

• refers to how precisely in time a method can measure or affect brain activity

Electroencephalography

• changes in voltage recorded from sensory cap

• measures brain electricity

• from summation of postsynaptic potential

Event related potential (ERP)

• a way of analysing EEG data

• segments of EEG time-locked to stimuli

  • averaging segments → stimuli separated then compared

Strengths of EEG/ERP

• cheaper

• high temporal resolutions

  • can detect rapid changes in brain activity in milliseconds

Limitations of EEG/ERP

• Limited spatial resolution

  • cannot localise activity in brain w/prescion

  • brain & fluid conducts so activity can have multiple origins

Eyetracking

• uses infrared light to detect pupil & corneal reflections

• It provides high-resolution data on where, when, & how long people look at things.

• It’s the most common method for studying visual attention

• Lab-based (remote) & real-world (head-mounted) setups

foveal eyetracking

• focuses on what falls within fovea

  • part of retina w/highest visual acuity.

• move our eyes to bring things into the foveal region, so tracking eye movements lets us infer what someone is paying attention to in high detail.

eye trackers measures fixations

• pauses of the eye as it looks at a stimulus, indicating where attention is focused

cortical magnification

• disproportionately large area of visual cortex dedicated to the centre of visual field

Strengths of eye tracking

• safe

• high temporal resolution that can precisely detect

  • Saccades (movement) & Fixations (pauses)

• high spatial resolution for overt

  • know what object or area someone is looking at

Limitations of eye tracking

• cannot see covert attention

  • limited in measuring internal cognitive processes, such as thoughts or emotion

• challenging in those w/eye impairments

Pupillometry

• measure of pupil size

• associated w/emotion or arousal

Microelectrode

• small electrode implanted into brain

Galvanic skin response measurement

• measure of skin conduct

• sweat

cardiac measurements

• heart rate

electrography

• technique to record electrical activity of muscles

Challenges of assessment of problems in children

• rapid developmental transitions

• lack of data integration

• difficulty determining level of impairment

rapid developmental transitions

• children develop vary fast in 1st 3-5 yrs

• considerable brain maturation

• behaviours clinically relevant in older children may be normal in younger

  • e.g temper tantrums in toddlers show development of self

lack of data integration

• different sources about child

• mix of methods used

• Different time frames used

different sources about child

• parents

• relatives

• child themselves

• friend

mix of methods used

• semi-structured interviews

• observations

  • allow for min-to-min interactions

• questionnaire

Different time frames used

• depends on nature of question

• 6 months for anxiety

• 2 weeks for depression

difficulty determining level of impairment

• does behaviour impact family

  • attendance in school

  • symptoms

• aspects of child functioning

aspects of child functioning which may make it harder to assess

• adaptations to situational demand

  • may appear well-behaved in class but struggle at home → masking

• development of skills

  • may make assessment harder if they can’t read

• relationship

  • e.g falling out with peers often = signs of emotional dysregulation

• physical health

  • health issues may mimic or mask cognitive or behavioural difficulties

Research approaches to assess socio-emotional problems in children

• multiple methods

  • questionnaire, interviews, behavioural assessments

• multiple resources

  • observations of children, parents, teachers, peers

What factors affect child’s accuracy to responding

• age

• interview technique

• response format

• phrasing

• abstract concepts

How does age affect child’s accuracy to responding

• young p tend to respond exaggeratedly or randomly

• may not able to answer questions

  • lack of understanding or development of skill

• can overcome issue by cross validating

  • others given same questions

How does interview technique affect child’s accuracy to responding

• how questions are asked

  • leading questions may result in certain responses

• children are vunerable to persuasion

• ask open questions w/multiple answers

How does response format affect child’s accuracy to responding

• Likert scale may be too hard to understand

• use smiley faces

How does phrasing affect child’s accuracy to responding

• complicated questions may confuse children

• try to attend to attention spans

  • short & clear

How does use of abstract concepts affect child’s accuracy to responding

• myst ask factual rather than abstract

  • colour rather than freedom

• may not have developed abstract understanding yet

  • 7-11 (Piaget) adolscence

what may affect observations of parent-child interactions

• presence of observer

• type of task

• localisation of observation

Why is presence of observer important to consider when observing parent-child interactions

• must control for reactivity as behaviour may change (Social Desirability Bias)

• habituation

  • have multiple meetings

  • allow interactions

  • get used to camera

Why is type of task important to consider when observing parent-child interactions

• structured = specific task in a time frame

  • allow for control but may cause stress

• unstructured = P & child play (no aim)

  • calming but may be uncomfortable at first

Why is localisation of observation important to consider when observing parent-child interactions

• behaviour may be more natural at home

  • space/light may affect them

  • more difficult to control

• lab allows for continuity for all P

  • may require habituation

strengths of observing parent-child interactions

• researcher defines & chooses target behaviours

  • focus on more relevant behaviours

  • ensures focus & consistency

• can look at microscopic processes & mechanisms of behaviour e.g how a parent responds

• have data on rates & frequencies (quant)

Limitations of observing parent-child interactions

• expensive & time consuming

• require extensive training to establish reliability

Screening questionnaires for assessment of children

• can tell us how often behaviours occur

• cut offs used to assign risk status

  • 10+ indicates increased levels of symptoms

    • arbitrary/subjective

• can be biased by parent’s moods/attributions of child behaviour

  • may be comparing or depressed = negative

• often culturally bound (western language)

Structured clinical interviews for assessment of children

• allows us to understand issues face by child

  • behavioural presentation (symptoms)

    • duration/frequency

• course of behaviour → may overcome later life

• sensitivity to behaviour

selected attachment methods for assessment of children

• helps us understand child’s attachment w/parents

• e.g strange situation

  • lab experiment, 9-18 months

Assessment of emotional quality of the parent-child relationship for assessment of children

• caregiver talks for 5 mins about child/their relationship w/child over the last 6 months → do not ask questions

• negative ideas/uncomfortable things gets revealed in

  • initial statement, warmth of description

  • need to say they enjoy spending time together

• If more critical than positive → high expressed emotion

  • may result in disordered thinking

• depends on language, emotion & personality

ethical issues in conducting research w/children

• investigators must not use any research procedure which may harm child mentally/physically

• investigator obliged to use less stressful procedure

according to animal behaviour, what is behaviour?

• most observable response given to a stimulus

• normally involves movement

• categorised by types

stimuli

• events that cause an organism to act/react

types of behaviour

• states

• events

• bouts

animal welfare

• the state of an individual as it attempts to cope w/its enviroment

benefits of using animals in research

• Consistent availability & participation.

• Controlled environment for study.

• Insight into both animal and human behaviour.

• Governed by strict ethical standards.

states of behaviour

• long duration behaviours

• can be times

events

• short duration behaviours

• counted & reported at same time

bouts

• short behaviours which are sequenced grouping of events into set pattern

• short period of time of specific activity

• will have specific start & end

• e.g courtship

pure animal behaviour research

• to understand behaviour for own sake

• evolutionary/cognitive understanding

• lab/field naturalistic studoes

applied animal behaviour research

• used to improve welfare

• real word contexts

• modify zoos & support species typical behaviours

why do we study behaviour in psychology?

• tells us evolutionary components to human behaviour

• cross-species comparison

• improves how we manage animals & how we interact w/them

• understanding of internal motivation

ethogram

• list of behaviours

• defined & describe

time-activity budget

• tool used to quantify & understand behaviours

• tracking how much time they spend

  • visualising energy expenditure & behaviour priotires

social behaviours

• interactions directed toward another individual

foraging behaviours

• set pattern that a species uses to locate/idenitfy food

focal individual

• animal you are following

scan sample

• individuals in a group

• hard to identify

sampling

• who to follow & watch

Recording

• how & when to observe/record info

Instantaneous

• instant scan sampling of a group

• short scan

• individuals

Continuous

• recording total time spent by individuals on a certain behaviour

ad lip sampling

• writing down what you see when it occurs

• using ethogram

one zero sampling

• yes/no saw it

• good for rare behaviour

event sampling

• tally chart for frequency/rate

ethical review

• stringent process

• responsibility to protect animals (duty of care)

• submitting methods for peer review

instantaneous focal/scan sampling

• records periodically

• divided into sample intervals

  • record on minute every minute

• record whether behaviour is occurring at a particular point

• overall score expressed as proportion of observation time

continuous focal sampling

• exact record of behaviours

• necessary for frequency/duration

• keep timing duration of behaviour

frequency

• number of occurrences of behaviour in a unit of time

duration

• length of time for which a single occurence of behaviour lasts

latency

• time from a specific stimulus to 1st occurence of behaviour

animal scientific procedures act 1986

• regulates all animals & governs licencing

• reduction (most statically relevant)

• refinement (best species used)

• replacement

behavioural profiles

• observe across full day or representative period

• capture fluctuations in activity overtime

statistics in Behavioural Research

• T-tests → Good even w/non-parametric-like data if sample ≥25

• ANOVA + Post-hoc tests → For group comparisons (e.g., sex, age)

• Repeated Measures → Ideal when observing same individuals over time

important considerations for animal behaviour

• Conduct a pilot study

• Read similar studies

• Develop a clear ethogram

• Base methods on existing research

Qualitative psychology illuminates

• p’s subjective meaning, actions & social context

aims of qualitative psychology

• to develop in-depth understanding of

  • ‘lived’ experiences

  • individual perspective

• to offer interpretation & develop theory

• not about BIG data or generalizability

generalisability & qualitative

• never aim to generalise

emergence of qualitative

• rejecting idea of an observable/singular reality

  • operate in subjective interpreted word

• relationship between person & context seen as fluid & reciprocal

  • part of our own moral code

  • not just chemicals that react the same way

why do we use qualitative methods

• no correct version of reality/knowledge

• allows us to context to which reality is bound

• allows for access to marginalised groups & subjective experience

Elements of quantitative paradigm (Silverman, 2000)

• qual data isn’t reducible to numbers → interested in words

  • can use content analysis

• uses naturally occurring methods

• interested in meanings rather than measures

• theory generating → rejection of objectivity

  • reason why you are studying it

data description of qualitative

• rich data

• thick description

• detailed/complex accounts for each P

analysis of secondary data

• diaries

• text

• books

observation techniques

• participant

• non-participant

participant observation

• researchers immerse themselves in a group or setting to observe/participate

• aiming to gain an "insider" perspective

nonparticipant observation

• researchers observe a social setting, group, or individuals without participating in activities

• nonverbal cues

interpretivism

• seeking to understand subjective reality of a P in a way that’s meaningful