Psychology 101:04 Spring 2025 Final Exam Study Guide

What is an operational definition?

The precise description of how a concept or variable will be measured and observed in a particular study

What is a case study?

In-depth analysis of one subject, a study of a particular phenomenon, situation, or group

Survey Method

Performing an experience based on constructed questions given to someone, allowing them to gather information about a larger population by studying a representative sample

Observation method

A researcher observes and records the behavior of participants without actively manipulating or interfering with their actions

Correlational method

Measures the strength and direction of relationships between variables

Experimental methods

The researcher changes one variable and measures the effect of that change on another variable

What is random sampling?

A method of selecting participants for a study where every individual from the population has an equal chance of being chosen

What are positive and negative correlations?

Positive correlations: Variables change in the same direction. Negative correlations: Variables change in opposite directions

Does correlation indicate causation?

No; correlation does not imply causation. A third variable could be responsible for the observed relationship

What is random assignment?

Randomly assigning participants to different groups to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being in any group

What are IVs and DVs?

Independent Variables (IV) are manipulated; Dependent Variables (DV) are the outcomes measured

What is experimental control?

Ensuring that factors other than the independent variable do not influence the dependent variable

What is a confound (confounding variable)?

A third variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables, distorting the observed relationship

What is generalizability?

The extent to which research results apply to situations beyond the study itself, including to other people and settings

What is myelin sheath?

A protective cover around the axon of a neuron that helps messages travel faster

What is the action potential?

An electrical signal that travels along the axon to transmit a message

What is a synapse?

A tiny gap between two neurons across which chemical messages are transmitted

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons

What are endorphins?

Natural painkillers produced by the brain that reduce pain and promote pleasure

What is dopamine?

A neurotransmitter involved in voluntary movement, reward, learning, and memory

What is serotonin?

A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, sleep, and appetite; inhibitory signal

What is epinephrine?

A neurotransmitter involved in the stress response; triggers "fight or flight" reactions

What are agonists and antagonists?

Agonists increase normal neurotransmitter activity; antagonists decrease neurotransmitter activity

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

The part of the autonomic nervous system that increases physiological arousal ("stress")

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

The part of the autonomic nervous system that decreases physiological arousal ("peace")

What is the endocrine system?

A network of glands that produce and release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate body functions

What is the pituitary gland?

The master gland that regulates growth, metabolism, and other endocrine glands

What are the adrenal glands?

Glands important for mood, energy level, and stress response; release adrenaline

What is an EEG?

A test that detects electrical activity in the brain through electrodes attached to the scalp

What is an fMRI?

A brain imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow

What is the brainstem?

The part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord and regulates vital life functions like breathing and heartbeat

What is the medulla?

The base of the brainstem; controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing

What is the pons?

A part of the brainstem involved in coordinating facial movements, sensations, hearing, and balance

What is the amygdala?

A brain structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression

What is the hippocampus?

A brain structure important for forming new memories and spatial navigation

What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?

Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes

What are mirror neurons?

Neurons that fire both when an individual acts and when they observe the same action performed by another

What is the somatosensory cortex?

A brain area that processes information about touch and body sensations

What is the motor cortex?

A brain area involved in planning and executing voluntary movements

What is plasticity?

The brain’s ability to adapt its structure and function in response to experience

What is inattentional blindness?

Failing to notice fully visible but unexpected objects because attention was focused elsewhere

What is change blindness?

Failing to notice changes in the environment due to selective attention

How does light affect the SCN, pineal gland, and melatonin?

Light exposure influences the SCN, which controls the pineal gland’s release of melatonin; darkness triggers melatonin production, promoting sleepiness

What is REM sleep?

A sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and brain wave activity similar to wakefulness

What is paradoxical sleep?

Another term for REM sleep because the body is paralyzed but the brain is active

What is sleep paralysis?

A temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or upon waking

What are the three stages of N-REM sleep?

N1 (light sleep), N2 (true sleep), N3 (deep sleep)

What is a hypnagogic jerk?

A sudden, involuntary muscle contraction that occurs when falling asleep

What is a hypnagogic hallucination?

A vivid sensory experience occurring at sleep onset without an actual stimulus

What is N2 sleep?

The stage of true sleep characterized by further slowing of brain waves and decreased muscle activity

What is N3 sleep?

The deepest stage of N-REM sleep, associated with very slow brain waves and difficulty waking

What was Piaget’s approach to cognitive development?

Children actively construct knowledge by adapting to new observations and experiences

What is assimilation?

Fitting new information into existing schemas

What is accommodation?

Changing existing schemas to incorporate new information

What are Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational

What is the sensorimotor stage?

Birth to 2 years; understanding the world through sensory experiences and motor actions

What is object permanence?

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen

What is the preoperational stage?

Ages 2–7; development of language and symbolic thinking, but still egocentric

What is egocentrism?

Viewing the world only from one’s own perspective

What is animistic thinking?

Attributing life-like qualities to inanimate objects

What is conservation?

Understanding that physical properties remain the same despite changes in form or appearance

What is the concrete operational stage?

Ages 7–11; development of logical thinking about concrete events

What is reversibility?

Understanding that changes can be reversed, returning to the original condition

What is transitivity?

Understanding how different items are related in a series

What is the formal operational stage?

Age 11–adulthood; ability to think abstractly and hypothetically

What is Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development?

Cognitive development results from social interactions and guidance from more knowledgeable individuals

What is the zone of proximal development?

The difference between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help

What is scaffolding?

Adjusting the amount of guidance provided based on the child’s level of performance

What is theory of mind?

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one’s own

What is Erikson’s first stage: trust vs. mistrust?

Birth to 1 year; developing trust when caregivers provide reliable care

What is autonomy vs. shame and doubt?

Ages 1–3; developing independence and self-control

What is initiative vs. guilt?

Ages 3–5; developing confidence through taking initiative or feeling guilty for trying

What is industry vs. inferiority?

Ages 6–11; developing a sense of competence through achievements or feelings of inferiority

What is identity vs. role confusion?

Ages 12–18; developing a stable self-identity or confusion about future roles

What is intimacy vs. isolation?

Young adulthood; forming committed, intimate relationships or experiencing loneliness

What is generativity vs. stagnation?

Middle adulthood; contributing to future generations or feeling a lack of purpose

What is integrity vs. despair?

Late adulthood; reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret

What were the results of Harlow’s studies of infant attachment?

Monkeys preferred comfort (soft mother) over food (wire mother), showing the importance of emotional bonds

How did Mary Ainsworth study attachment?

Through the Strange Situation, observing how infants reacted to separations and reunions with their caregiver

What is secure attachment?

Infants feel safe to explore but seek comfort from caregiver when needed

What is insecure-avoidant attachment?

Infants avoid or ignore caregiver after separation, showing little emotional response

What is insecure-anxious/ambivalent attachment?

Infants show extreme distress when separated and clinginess when reunited

What is authoritative parenting?

High warmth, high control; sets clear standards but is responsive to child’s needs

What is authoritarian parenting?

Low warmth, high control; emphasizes obedience without explanation

What is permissive parenting?

High warmth, low control; few rules, indulgent

What is uninvolved parenting?

Low warmth, low control; little emotional involvement or supervision

What is preconventional morality?

Moral reasoning based on avoiding punishment or seeking rewards

What is conventional morality?

Moral reasoning based on conforming to societal rules and expectations

What is postconventional morality?

Moral reasoning based on abstract principles such as justice and equality

What is delay of gratification?

The ability to resist immediate rewards for greater long-term rewards

What was the marshmallow test?

A study by Mischel testing children's ability to delay gratification by choosing between one marshmallow now or two marshmallows later

What is bottom-up processing?

Perception based on building from raw sensory input

What is top-down processing?

Perception shaped by prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations

What are absolute thresholds?

The minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

What is the difference threshold (just noticeable difference)?

The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected

What is Weber’s law?

The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion to be perceived as different

What is signal detection theory?

The theory that detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical and psychological state of the individual

What is sensory adaptation?

Decreased sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus over time

What is the Gestalt approach?

We perceive objects as whole forms rather than just a collection of parts

What is figure-ground perception?

The tendency to separate objects (figures) from their background (ground)