Religion Final 2025

Martin Luther

• monk

• wanted reform in the church, but ended with a new one

• wrote the 95 Theses in 1517

• started the Lutheran church

John Calvin

• 16th century

• made changes to Luther’s thought

• believed that Baptism and the Eucharist were memorials; rejected practices not explicitly in the bible

• Theology: total depravity, unconditional election, limited atonement, irresistible grace, perseverance of the saints

Charlemagne

• son of Pepin, Christian, HRE in 800

• goal of rule: Christianize Europe

• believed in forceful conversion, fighting

• established monasteries and schools, reform, copying manuscripts

• he created the most powerful empire in the west since the Roman Empire

St. Bernard of Clairvaux

• 12th century

• considered as last father of the church

• joined the Cistercians

• began his own monastery

• promoted devotion to Mary

• encouraged second crusade

St. Francis of Assisi

• Middle Ages

• Catholic saint, spiritual father

• gave life to God at a young age

• lived in absolute poverty and unselfish devotion

• represents the Gospel

• started the Franciscans

St. Dominic

• Middle Ages

• worked to spread Christianity during the crusades

• started the Dominican Order

St. Thomas Aquinas

• Dominican friar

• scholastic thinker, scholar, teacher, preacher

• one of the most influential philosophers and theologians

St. Marianne Kope

• 1838-1918

The Great Schism of 1054

• 1054

• who: Diocletian, popes, barbarians

• what:

  • diocletian names two capitals

  • distance creates problems

  • barbarian invasions in in the west

  • popes trying to assert power

  • many heresies

• highlighted a major problem connected to the view of authority

The Western Schism

• 1378-1417

• causes:

  • Pope Gregory dies

  • Pope Urban (Italian) and Clement (French) are elected

• now had 3 popes

• French and Italian cardinals meet in Pisa

• ended with the Council of Constance

• Why: people lost trust in church; excommunication became a joke; conciliarism

The Council of Trent

• 1545-1563

• invited all bishops and lutheran theologians

• met alone to write and vote on the issues and disciplines

• clarified teachings → catechisms

• Tridentine reform

• new rules for the bishops

• Pope Paul III called the council

• St. Peter C established colleges

• St. Charles started seminaries

Iconoclasm Controversy

• when: abt 8th century

• who: Emperor Leo III, Pope St. Gregory II

• where: Byzantine

• what:

  • Emperor declared veneration of sacred images a form of idolatry

  • ordered their destruction and wanted them to impose a church-wide rule that forbade them

  • pope declared this was wrong, emperor sent a fleet to attack Rome

• why: underscored primacy of the pope, deepened chasm between east and west

Photian Schism

• when: 863-867

• who: Emperor Michael III, Ignatius (clergy), Photius (laity), Pope Nicholas I

• what:

  • emperor michael replaced ignatius with photius

  • pope nicholas disagreed, but legates still certified the appointment

  • pope excommunicates photius

  • photius excommunicates pope and the western church while condemning certain practices and accusing it of heresy

• why: primacy of the pope over emperor is in question