IB Psychology HL - Research Methods

Validity

Refers to a test's ability to measure what it is supposed to measure

Internal Validity

The degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable rather than extraneous variables

External Validity

Whether it is possible to generalise the results beyond the experiment to other populations and conditions from the experiment

Temporal Validity

Refers to how likely it is that the time period when a study was conducted
has influenced the findings and whether they can be generalised to other
periods in time

Ecological Validity

The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings.

Construct Validity

Refers to whether a scale or test measures the concept accurately

Reliability

The extent to which if the experiment was repeated would the same results be obtained

Repeatability

How practical the research is to repeat easily

Researcher Bias

Also known as experimenter bias, process where the psychologists performing the research influence the results, to portray a certain outcome.

Demand Characteristics

Occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves
in a good way.

Social Desirability

Participants' behaviour is distorted as they modify this to be seen in a positive light.

Control Group

A group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment

Experimental Group

The group that received the experimental treatment

Independent Variable

The variable that the experimenter manipulates

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured to tell you the outcome

Extraneous Variable(s)

Variables that can be controlled that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression than an IV has produced changes when it hasn't

Confounding Variable(s)

Internal variables in the participants

ex. language proficiency

Ethical Considerations

There are 6 guidelines that are provided by the BPS - they are the 'rules' by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research.

Informed Consent

Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to understand fully all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part

Debrief

After completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part.

Confidentiality

Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.

Deception

Involves misleading participants about the purpose of a study or what will happen in the study.

Right to Withdraw

Participants should be aware that they can leave the study at any time, even if they have been paid to take part.

Protection from Harm

Participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress - risk of harm must be no greater than that to which they are exposed in everyday life

Lab Experiment

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the
experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV

Field Experiment

An experiment that takes place in an external setting where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV

Natural Experiment

An experiment where the change in the IV already exists rather than being manipulated by the experimenter due to naturally occurring environmental factors

Quasi Experiment

An experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV
simply exists so there can be no random allocation to the conditions

Mundane Realism

The degree to which the materials and procedures involved in an experiment are similar to events that occur in the real world.

Generalisability

The extent to which the findings of a study can be applicable to other settings.

Gender Bias

The differential treatment and/or representation of males and females,
based on stereotypes and not on real differences.

Representative

A sample that that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics

Alpha Gender Bias

Refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females

Beta Gender Bias

Theories have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences. These
theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females

Population Validity

The degree to which study results can be generalized to and across the people in the target population

Structured Interview

The interviewer follows a predetermined set of questions in a specific order, limiting flexibility. This approach is often used in surveys or studies requiring comparable data across a large sample.

Observation

Observation is a data collection method used in research to systematically watch, record, and analyze behaviors, events, or phenomena as they occur in their natural setting or controlled environments.

Case study

A case study is an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event, typically grounded in real-life contexts. It aims to gather comprehensive and rich data to gain insights into specific behaviors, experiences, or phenomena.

Semi Structured interview

The interviewer uses a set of open-ended questions but can adapt and probe further based on the interviewee's responses. This approach is often preferred in psychology for in-depth qualitative data while maintaining some level of consistency.

Unstructured interview

The interviewer has a broad topic but no fixed questions, allowing for a free-flowing conversation. This type is useful for qualitative research where understanding individual perspectives is key.

Overt observation

Participants are aware that they are being observed, and the researcher openly records their behavior.

Covert observation

In this method, participants are unaware that they are being observed. The researcher may blend in or use unobtrusive methods to collect data.

Pros of a focus group

• Natural group conversation dynamics.

• Ideas can spark from group interaction.

• Time-efficient for gathering data.

Cons of a focus group

• Dominant voices may intimidate others.

• Risk of conformity effects among participants.

Pros of a one to one interview

More personal

allows for deeper individual insights.

Cons of a one to one interview

Time-consuming, may lack the diversity of perspectives.

Pros of an overt observation

• Ethical clarity, as participants consent to being observed.

• Easier to establish rapport and trust, potentially leading to richer data.

Cons of an overt observation

• Increased likelihood of reactivity, as participants may alter their behavior due to awareness of observation.

• Observer presence may influence the dynamics of the group or situation.

Pros of a covert observation

• Reduces the likelihood of reactivity, leading to more authentic behavior.

• Can provide a more accurate representation of natural behavior.

Cons of a covert observation

• Ethical concerns regarding consent and privacy.

• Difficult to ensure accuracy in data collection without participant awareness.

Survey

systematic method for gathering information from individuals, typically through questionnaires or interviews, to understand attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a group.

qualitative research

Involves collecting non-numerical data to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It often seeks to provide insights into the motivations and underlying reasons for behaviors.

Placebo

The placebo effect in psychology refers to the psychological and physiological responses that occur when a person believes they are receiving a treatment, even if that treatment is inactive.

triangulation

involves the use of two or more methods, data sources, or theories to study a research problem. It aims to cross-verify findings and reduce the potential for bias or error.

Order effects

when the order in which treatments or conditions are presented affects the participants' responses. This can lead to confounding variables that can skew the data and impact the study's validity.

Counterbalancing

involves systematically varying the order of conditions across participants to mitigate the potential impact of order effects (such as practice, fatigue, or carryover effects) on the results of an experiment.

Double blind

both the subjects and the experimenters are kept unaware of the group assignments. This helps to eliminate biases that could influence the outcomes of the research.

Single blind

participants do not know whether they are receiving the experimental treatment or a control (such as a placebo), but the researchers do. This structure aims to reduce participant bias while still allowing researchers to monitor and manage the study effectively.

Credibility

refers to the trustworthiness and reliability of the findings and the methods used to obtain them. A credible study is one that produces results that are believable, accurate, and can be relied upon to inform decision-making or contribute to knowledge in a field.

Bias

refers to systematic errors in thinking, judgment, or behavior that can lead to inaccurate conclusions or interpretations in research

Researcher bias

refers to the influence of a researcher's beliefs, expectations, or preferences on the design, conduct, analysis, or interpretation of a study

ex. A researcher may focus on data that supports their theory while neglecting evidence that contradicts it.

Participant bias

refers to the influence that participants' beliefs, expectations, and behaviors can have on the outcomes of a research study.

Ex. Participants may underreport behaviors like smoking or drinking due to fear of judgment

Sampling bias

occurs when the sample selected for a study is not representative of the larger population from which it is drawn.

ex. Surveying only students from a particular university may not represent the views of all students in the region

Transferability

refers to the extent to which research findings can be applied or generalized to settings, populations, or contexts beyond the specific conditions of the study.

Nomothetic approach

The nomothetic approach is a research strategy that seeks to establish general laws or principles that apply broadly across different situations or populations.

Hypothesis

is a specific, testable prediction or statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Correlation studies

research designs used to examine the relationship between two or more variables to determine whether and how they are related. These studies do not involve manipulation of variables; instead, they focus on observing and measuring the variables as they naturally occur.

Cost benefit analysis

Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is a systematic process for evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives in order to determine the best approach to achieve desired outcomes

Does the cost outweight the benefit and vice versa?

Quantitative research

research with numerical data

Experimental hypothesis

An experimental hypothesis is a specific, testable statement predicting the outcome of an experiment based on the manipulation of one or more independent variables.

Null hypothesis

It represents a statement of no effect, no difference, or no relationship between variables.

Operationalizing

refers to the process of defining and measuring abstract concepts or variables in a way that allows them to be empirically tested and observed.

ex. Stress: using a likert scale to evaluate anxiety, feelings

Constructs

is an abstract concept or variable that is specifically defined for the purposes of research.

Independent sample design

refers to a research design in which two or more groups of participants are compared, and each group is composed of different individuals. Random allocation

Matched pairs design

a research design used in experiments where participants are paired based on specific characteristics to control for variables that might impact the results.

Repeated measures design

research design in which the same participants are exposed to multiple conditions or treatments.

Random sampling

A method where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. This can be achieved through random number generators or other randomization techniques.

• Advantages:

  • Reduces selection bias.

  • Results are generalizable to the broader population.

• Disadvantages:

  • Can be time-consuming and costly, especially if the population is large.

Opportunity sampling

Involves selecting participants who are easily accessible to the researcher, often based on availability.

• Advantages:

  • Fast and straightforward.

  • Useful in situations where time is limited.

• Disadvantages:

  • May lead to a non-representative sample.

  • Potential for bias based on the circumstances of selection.

Volunteer sampling

Participants self-select to be part of the study, often in response to advertisements or calls for participants.

• Advantages:

  • Can attract motivated participants.

  • Easy to implement.

• Disadvantages:

  • The sample may not be representative of the broader population.

  • Volunteers may have characteristics (e.g., higher motivation) that influence results.

Purposive sampling

The researcher selects participants based on specific characteristics or criteria relevant to the study. This is often used in qualitative research.

• Advantages:

  • Allows for targeted selection of participants who can provide rich, relevant information.

  • Useful for studies focusing on specific subgroups.

• Disadvantages:

  • Subjective selection may introduce bias.

  • Generalizability of findings can be limited.

Snowball sampling

Participants recruit other participants from their acquaintances. This is particularly useful for studying hard-to-reach or hidden populations.

• Advantages:

  • Can access populations that are difficult to sample using other methods.

  • Builds a network of respondents.

• Disadvantages:

  • Potential for bias, as participants may refer others with similar characteristics.

  • Generalizability may be limited.

Replication

Replication refers to repeating a study using the same or different participants to verify findings.

Cross sectional study

looks at data at a single point in time.

Longitudinal study

researchers repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any changes that might occur over a period of time.