part 3 history

Igbo Peoples

A West African ethnic group from present-day Nigeria. Many Igbo people were taken into the Atlantic slave trade and influenced African American culture.

Indentured Servants

European laborers who agreed to work for a set number of years in exchange for passage to America, food, and housing.

Indulgences

Payments made to the Catholic Church that were believed to reduce punishment for sins. Martin Luther criticized this practice, helping begin the Protestant Reformation.

Inner Light

The Quaker belief that every person has a direct spiritual connection with God and does not need priests or formal churches.

Iroquois Confederacy

A political alliance of Native nations in the Northeast created for peace, diplomacy, and mutual defense.

Jacob Leisler

A German immigrant who led a rebellion in New York in 1689 against colonial elites during the political changes after the Glorious Revolution.

Jacob Weber

A German immigrant associated with early colonial settlement and German communities in Pennsylvania.

Jacques Cartier

A French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River and helped establish French claims in North America.

James Harrington

An English political writer whose ideas about republican government influenced colonial political thought.

James II

English king who attempted to increase royal authority, leading to the creation of the Dominion of New England and eventually the Glorious Revolution.

James Oglethorpe

The founder of Georgia in 1732. He wanted it to serve as a buffer colony against Spanish Florida and a place for poor settlers.

James Wolfe

A British general who defeated the French at the Battle of Quebec in 1759 during the French and Indian War.

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded in Virginia in 1607.

Jeffrey Amherst

A British military commander during the French and Indian War who supported harsh policies toward Native peoples.

Jeremiad

A Puritan sermon or speech warning people that they had strayed from religious ideals and needed to return to faith.

Jesuits

Catholic missionaries who worked to spread Christianity among Indigenous peoples during European expansion.

John Cabot

An Italian explorer sailing for England who explored North America's Atlantic coast and helped England claim territory.

John Calvin

A Protestant reformer who developed Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and God’s sovereignty.

John Dickinson

A colonial writer who argued against British taxation while also supporting reconciliation before independence.

John Eliot

A Puritan missionary who worked to convert Native Americans and created “praying towns.”

John Endecott

A Puritan leader and early governor of Massachusetts Bay.

John Hale

A minister involved in the Salem witch trials who later questioned the accusations.

John Locke

An English philosopher who argued for natural rights, government by consent, and the right to resist unjust rulers.

John Rolfe

A Jamestown settler who developed tobacco cultivation and married Pocahontas.

John Smith

A leader of Jamestown who helped organize the colony and encouraged survival through labor.

John White

The governor of the Roanoke colony, known for the mystery of the “Lost Colony.”

John Winthrop

A Puritan leader and governor of Massachusetts Bay who described the colony as a “city upon a hill.”

Joint Stock Companies

Businesses where investors pooled money to fund expensive projects such as colonization.

Jonathan Edwards

A preacher of the First Great Awakening known for his sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.”

Joseph Coulon de Jumonville

A French military officer whose death during a conflict with George Washington helped begin the French and Indian War.

Joseph Galloway

A colonial politician who proposed a plan for reconciliation between Britain and the colonies before independence.

Junketing

A colonial social activity involving feasting and entertainment.

Kachinas

Spiritual beings in Pueblo religion representing ancestors and natural forces.

King George’s War

A 1744–1748 conflict between Britain and France that was part of larger struggles for empire.

King Philips’ War

A 1675–1676 conflict between New England colonists and Native peoples led by Metacomet (King Philip).

King William’s War

A 1689–1697 conflict between England and France that spread to their North American colonies.

Kivas

Underground ceremonial rooms used by Pueblo peoples for religious activities and community gatherings.

L’Anse aux Meadows

A Viking settlement in Newfoundland and the earliest known European site in North America.

Lancados

Portuguese traders and settlers involved in early Atlantic trade networks.

Lateen Sail

A triangular sail design that allowed ships to sail more efficiently against the wind.

Laws Concessions & Agreements

A 1665 document establishing rules and rights for settlers in East Jersey.

Laws Liberties of Massachusetts

A 1641 Massachusetts document listing rights and laws for the colony.

Laws Moral, Divine, and Martial

A strict set of laws created for Jamestown that regulated behavior and survival.

Lenni-Lenape

A Native American people also known as the Delaware who lived in the Mid-Atlantic region.

Lexington

The Massachusetts town where the first major battle of the American Revolution occurred in 1775.

Lief Ericsson

A Viking explorer traditionally believed to have reached North America around 1000 CE.

Little Commonwealth

The Puritan idea that the family was a small model of society where parents taught children religion and discipline.

Little Turtle

A Miami leader who resisted U.S. expansion and defeated American forces in the early 1790s.

Log Cabin

A simple frontier home style associated with European settlers and westward expansion.

Longhouse

A large communal home used by Iroquois peoples, often housing multiple families.

Lord Cornbury

A colonial governor of New York and New Jersey known for corruption and controversy.

Lord Dunmore

A royal governor of Virginia who offered freedom to enslaved people who joined the British during the American Revolution.

Lost Colony

The failed English settlement at Roanoke Island whose settlers mysteriously disappeared.

Louisbourg

A French fortress in Nova Scotia captured by British forces during the French and Indian War.

Lower Guinea Cultural Zone

A region of West Africa that contributed enslaved Africans to the Atlantic slave trade.

Loyalists

American colonists who remained loyal to Britain during the American Revolution.

Lucy Burwell

A colonial Virginia woman whose life represents the experiences of elite women in plantation society.

Mali

A powerful West African empire known for trade, wealth, and Islamic scholarship.

Mansa Musa

The ruler of Mali famous for his wealth and pilgrimage to Mecca.

Manteo

A Native American from Roanoke who worked with English explorers and was baptized as a Christian.

Maroon Communities

Communities created by escaped enslaved people who lived independently from colonial slave societies.

Martin Frobisher

An English explorer who searched for the Northwest Passage.

Martin Luther

A German religious reformer whose criticism of the Catholic Church began the Protestant Reformation.

Mary Dyer

A Quaker woman executed in Massachusetts for challenging Puritan religious laws.

Mary Hawthorne

A colonial woman associated with family and gender studies in early America.

Mary Rowlandson

A Puritan woman captured during King Philip’s War who wrote a famous captivity narrative.

Mary Tudor

Queen of England who attempted to restore Catholicism after the Protestant Reformation.

Mary Warren

A witness during the Salem witch trials who accused others before later admitting involvement.

Massachusetts Bay Company

A joint-stock company that founded Massachusetts Bay Colony as a Puritan settlement.

Massacre of Ft. William Henry

A 1757 event during the French and Indian War involving the surrender of a British fort and violence afterward.

Massasoit

A Wampanoag leader who established diplomatic relations with the Pilgrims.

Mayflower Compact

A 1620 agreement by Pilgrims creating a form of self-government in Plymouth.

Mercantilism

An economic system where nations increased wealth through trade, colonies, and control of resources.

Mercy Otis Warren

A writer and political thinker who supported the American Revolution and criticized British rule.

Merrymount

A settlement founded by Thomas Morton known for challenging Puritan customs.

Metacomet

The Wampanoag leader also known as King Philip who led King Philip’s War against New England colonists.

Methodists

A Protestant denomination that grew during the Great Awakening and emphasized personal faith and discipline.

Middle Passage

The forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas.

Midwives

Women who assisted with childbirth and provided medical knowledge in colonial communities.

Miles Standish

A military leader of Plymouth Colony who helped defend the settlement.

Militia

Citizen soldiers who could be called upon for defense or warfare.

Mississippian

A Native American cultural tradition known for farming, trade, and large mound-building cities such as Cahokia.

Molasses

A sugar product used in Atlantic trade and important to the triangular trade system.

Montcalm

A French military commander during the French and Indian War.

Montezuma

The Aztec emperor conquered by Hernán Cortés.

Moravians

A Protestant religious group known for missionary work and settlement communities.

Mourning Wars

Conflicts among Native peoples in which captives were taken to replace members lost through death.

Moveable Type

The printing technology using movable letters that increased the spread of information in Europe.

Moveables

Personal property or household possessions owned by individuals.

Mrs. Sherman’s Pig

A colonial court case involving property and community disputes.