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Biosphere
The global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships.
Evolution
The change in the heritable traits of biological populations over successive generations.
Natural selection
The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Cilia
Hair-like structures that aid in movement and sensation in various organisms.
Nested hierarchy
A system of organization where categories of organisms are arranged within larger categories.
Scientific method
A systematic method of inquiry that includes observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and analysis.
Atoms
The basic unit of a chemical element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Chemical bonds
The connections between atoms in a molecule, including covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.
Polarity
A condition in which molecules have areas of positive and negative charge.
Hydrogen bonding
Weak attractions between hydrogen atoms and electronegative atoms, vital for properties of water.
Macromolecules
Large complex molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.
Dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction that builds up molecules by losing water molecules.
Hydrolysis
The chemical breakdown of a compound due to the reaction with water.
Lipids
Fatty acids and their derivatives, important for energy storage and cell membrane structure.
Proteins
Large biomolecules consisting of one or more chains of amino acids, vital for cellular functions.
Nucleic acids
Biomolecules essential for life, including DNA and RNA, that carry genetic information.
Ribosomes
Complexes of RNA and protein that are responsible for protein synthesis in cells.
Endoplasmic reticulum
An organelle that synthesizes proteins and lipids; rough ER is studded with ribosomes.
Mitochondria
Organelles in eukaryotic cells responsible for energy production through cellular respiration.
Chloroplasts
Organelles found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis.
Cytoskeleton
A network of fibers that provides structural support to the cell.
Fluid mosaic model
A model describing the structure of cell membranes as a mosaic of various components.
Selective permeability
A property of cell membranes that allows certain molecules to enter or exit the cell selectively.
Active transport
The movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.
Metabolism
The totality of an organism's chemical reactions, managing the material and energy resources.
Anabolism
The metabolic process that builds molecules from smaller units.
Catabolism
The metabolic process that breaks down molecules into smaller units, releasing energy.
Gibbs free energy
A thermodynamic quantity that represents the energy available to do work.
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy carrier in cells.
Enzymes
Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in cells.
Substrates
The reactants acted upon by enzymes.
Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants and some organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water.
Calvin cycle
The set of chemical reactions that take place in chloroplasts during photosynthesis.
Fermentation
A metabolic process that converts sugars to acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen.
Meiosis
A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, creating gametes.
Phenotype
The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, determined by its genotype.
Genotype
The genetic constitution of an individual organism.
Homologous chromosomes
Chromosome pairs, one from each parent, that are similar in shape, size, and genetic content.
Punnett square
A diagram that is used to predict the outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment.
Natural selection
A process in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Speciation
The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.
Ecology
The study of interactions between organisms and their environment.
Demographics
Statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it.
Adaptation
The process by which a species becomes better suited to its environment.
Genetic drift
A change in the allele frequency of a population due to random sampling of organisms.
Gene flow
The transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another.
Hybrid vigor
The improved or increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring.
Pangenesis
An outdated hypothetical mechanism of heredity proposed by Darwin.
Biogeography
The study of the geographic distribution of living organisms.
Homology
The existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes, in different taxa.
Analogous structures
Structures in different species that are similar in function but not due to shared ancestry.
Vestigial structures
Body parts that have lost their original function through evolution.
Cell cycle
The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication.
Cyclins
Proteins that regulate the cell cycle.
MPF (Maturation-promoting factor)
A protein complex that triggers the cell's passage past the G2 checkpoint into mitosis.
Telomeres
The protective caps on the ends of chromosomes that shorten with each cell division.
Carcinogen
A substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue.
Ecosystem
A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
Biodiversity
The variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem.
Succession
The process by which ecosystems change and develop over time.
Trophic levels
The hierarchical levels in an ecosystem, comprising producers, primary consumers, and so on.
Producers
Organisms that produce their own food, primarily green plants and algae.
Aquatic biomes
Biomes associated with water, such as lakes, rivers, wetlands, and oceans.
Terrestrial biomes
Biomes located on land, including deserts, forests, and grasslands.
Pollination
The transfer of pollen from the male anthers of a flower to the female stigma.
Trophic cascade
An ecological phenomenon triggered by the addition or removal of top predators.
Extinction
The state or process of a species, family, or larger group being or becoming extinct.
Adaptation radiations
The diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches.
Symbiosis
A close and often long-term interaction between two different biological species.
Allele
One of two or more alternative forms of a gene found at the same place on a chromosome.
Translocation
The movement of a chromosome segment from one chromosome to another.
Nondisjunction
The failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division.
Heredity
The passing on of traits from parents to their offspring.
Mutation
A change in the DNA sequence of an organism.
Phenotypic plasticity
The ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to changes in the environment.
Biochemical cycles
The cycle of chemical elements and compounds in the environment.
Carbon cycle
The series of processes by which carbon compounds are interconverted in the environment.
Water cycle
The continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.
Nitrogen cycle
The series of processes by which nitrogen and its compounds are interconverted in the environment.
Phosphorus cycle
The biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Eutrophication
The process by which a body of water becomes overly enriched with nutrients, often leading to algal blooms.
Sustainable development
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Invasive species
Non-native species that spread widely in a new habitat.
Endangered species
A species of animal or plant that is serious risk of extinction.
Conservation biology
The scientific study of biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems.
Community ecology
The study of how interactions between species affect community structure and organization.
Population ecology
The branch of ecology that deals with the dynamics of species populations and their interactions with the environment.
Biomagnification
The increasing concentration of toxic substances within each successive link in the food chain.
Carrying capacity
The maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely.
Ecological footprint
A measure of human demand on Earth's ecosystems.
Mutualism
A type of symbiotic relationship where both species benefit.
Commensalism
A symbiotic relationship where one species benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed.
Parasitism
A symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits at the expense of another.
Decomposers
Organisms that break down dead or decaying organic matter.
Limiting factors
Conditions that restrict the size of a population.
Ecological succession
The process by which ecosystems change and develop over time.
Primary succession
Ecological succession that occurs in an area where no soil exists.
Secondary succession
Ecological succession that occurs in an area that was previously occupied but has been disturbed.
Keystone species
A species that has a disproportionately large impact on its environment relative to its abundance.
Fossil evidence
Remains or traces of organisms from the past, preserved in sedimentary rock.
