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Map Projections

Distort spatial relationships in four main ways: shape, distance, relative size, and direction.

Reference Maps

Show the general spatial properties of features. Examples: political maps, physical maps, road maps.

Thematic Maps

Display specific themes or data sets, such as population density or climate. Examples: choropleth maps, dot distribution maps.

Large-Scale Maps

Cover smaller areas with more detail.

Small-Scale Maps

Cover larger areas with less detail.

Census

A systematic count of a population, typically used by governments for demographic, economic, and social planning.

GIS (Geographic Information Systems)

A framework for gathering, managing, and analyzing spatial and geographic data.

Satellite Navigation Systems

Systems like GPS that gather location data.

Remote Sensing

Captures imagery/data of Earth's surface from satellites or aircraft.

Online Mapping and Visualization

Tools like Google Maps and ArcGIS that allow users to visualize and analyze geographic data digitally and interactively.

Distance Decay

The decreasing interaction between two phenomena as the distance between them increases.

Space-Time Compression

The idea that technology and transportation have 'shrunk' distances, making places feel closer in time.

Formal Region

A region with uniform characteristics (e.g., language, climate, political system). Example: the state of Texas.

Functional Region

A region organized around a central hub or focal point. Example: a metropolitan area like New York City.

Perceptual (Vernacular) Region

Defined by people's beliefs or feelings. Example: 'The South' in the U.S.

Location

Describes the position of something on Earth. Can be absolute (latitude/longitude) or relative (compared to another place).

Place

Describes the human and physical characteristics of a location.

Region

An area defined by common features (formal, functional, or perceptual).

Movement

Explains how and why people, goods, and ideas move from place to place.

Human-Environment Interaction

Explores how humans adapt to, modify, and depend on the environment.

Relocation Diffusion

Spread of an idea through physical movement of people. Example: migration spreading languages or religion.

Expansion Diffusion

Spread of a feature in a snowballing process. Includes hierarchical, contagious, and stimulus diffusion.

Scales of Analysis

Refers to the level of geographic area being examined: local, regional, national, global.

Population Density - Arithmetic

Total population divided by total land area.

Population Density - Physiological

Population divided by arable (farmable) land. Shows pressure on productive land.

Population Density - Agricultural

Number of farmers per unit of arable land. Indicates agricultural efficiency.

Factors Influencing Human Population Distribution

Climate, landforms, water sources, political stability, economic opportunities, and infrastructure.

Population Composition - Definition

Structure of a population based on age, sex, and other properties.

Elements of Population Composition

Age structure, sex ratio, ethnicity, language, religion, income, and education levels.

Depicting Population Composition

Population pyramids, demographic statistics, and spatial distribution maps.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

Shows population change over time through 5 stages: 1. High birth/death rates 2. High birth, declining death 3. Declining birth/death rates 4. Low birth/death rates 5. Declining population.

Epidemiological Transition Model (ETM)

Links disease patterns to DTM stages. Early stages: infectious diseases; later stages: chronic diseases.

Malthusian Theory - Assumptions

Population grows geometrically, food supply grows arithmetically; will lead to famine and conflict.

Why Malthus Was Wrong

Food production has increased due to technology and trade. Population growth slowed in developed nations.

Push Factors in Migration

Negative conditions that cause people to leave (e.g., war, famine, unemployment).

Pull Factors in Migration

Positive conditions that attract people (e.g., jobs, safety, freedom).

Categories of Push and Pull Factors

Economic, Social, Political, Environmental. Examples: drought (push), job opportunity (pull).

Ravenstein's Laws of Migration

1. Most migrants move short distances. 2. Migration occurs in steps. 3. Long-distance migrants go to economic centers. 4. Urban residents migrate less. 5. Young adults migrate more than families.

Zelinsky's Migration Transition

Migration patterns mirror DTM: Stage 1: minimal migration; Stage 2: international migration; Stages 3 & 4: internal migration (urbanization, suburbanization).

Cultural Landscape - Definition

Visible imprint of human activity on the landscape, reflecting cultural beliefs, economic practices, and social structures.

Characteristics of Cultural Landscapes

Architecture, land use, language signs, religious structures, monuments, and farming patterns.

Centripetal Forces - Definition

Forces that unify a country (e.g., shared language, nationalism, strong institutions).

Centrifugal Forces - Definition

Forces that divide a country (e.g., ethnic conflict, political fragmentation, economic disparity).

Examples of Centripetal/Centrifugal Forces

Centripetal: national holidays, common religion. Centrifugal: separatist movements, civil war.

Folk Culture vs. Popular Culture

Folk Culture: Traditional, practiced by small groups, varies by place, slow to change. Popular Culture: Widespread, varies over time, influenced by media and globalization.

Language Classification

Languages are grouped into Families (e.g., Indo-European), Branches (e.g., Germanic), Groups (e.g., West Germanic), then into specific languages and dialects.

Pidgin Language

Simplified form of a language used for communication between groups with no common language.

Creole Language

A pidgin language that becomes a native language with full grammar and vocabulary.

Lingua Franca

A common language used among speakers of different native languages for trade or diplomacy. Example: English.

Historical Causes of Diffusion

1. Colonialism 2. Imperialism 3. Trade and conquest.

Contemporary Causes of Diffusion

1. Globalization 2. Technological innovation 3. Media and internet.

Effects of Diffusion - Assimilation

When a minority group adopts the dominant culture, often losing its own culture.

Acculturation

When a culture adopts some traits of another while keeping aspects of its own.

Syncretism

The blending of elements from different cultures into a new, cohesive cultural form.

Multiculturalism

The coexistence of diverse cultures in one area, with mutual respect and preservation.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture by the standards of one's own culture, often leading to bias.

Language Diffusion Factors

Migration, colonization, trade, conquest, and media. Example: Spanish in Latin America due to colonization.

Religion Diffusion Factors

Missionary work, conquest, trade routes, migration. Example: Islam spread through trade and conquest; Christianity through colonization.

Nation

Group of people with shared culture and history (e.g., Kurds).

State

A political unit with defined boundaries, sovereignty, and government (e.g., France).

Nation-State

A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a single nation (e.g., Japan).

Multinational State

A state with multiple ethnic groups with traditions of self-determination (e.g., Russia).

Stateless Nation

A nation without a state (e.g., Palestinians).

Autonomous/Semi-Autonomous Region

Area within a state that has a degree of self-rule (e.g., Hong Kong).

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Defines territorial waters (12 nautical miles), exclusive economic zones (200 nautical miles). Conflicts arise over overlapping claims and disputed maritime boundaries (e.g., South China Sea).

Geometric Boundary

Straight-line boundary (e.g., U.S.-Canada).

Physical Boundary

Natural features like rivers/mountains (e.g., Andes between Chile/Argentina).

Cultural Boundary

Language or religion-based boundary (e.g., India-Pakistan).

Subsequent Boundary

After settlement, reflecting cultural landscape.

Superimposed Boundary

Drawn by outsiders with no regard for existing cultures (e.g., Africa).

Relic Boundary

No longer in use, but visible (e.g., Berlin Wall).

Federal Government

Power shared between central and local governments (e.g., U.S.).

Unitary Government

Centralized power (e.g., France).

Devolution

Transfer of power from central to regional governments.

Political Power

Ability to influence or control behavior of people, often exercised by governments.

Territoriality

A country's or group's connection to land; the effort to control space for political ends.

Neocolonialism

Economic control or influence by powerful countries over former colonies.

Shatterbelts

Regions caught between stronger powers in conflict, often unstable (e.g., Eastern Europe during the Cold War).

Chokepoints

Strategic narrow passageways (e.g., Strait of Hormuz, Panama Canal) critical for trade and military control.

Apportionment

Process of allocating legislative seats based on population (e.g., U.S. House of Representatives).

Redistricting

Redrawing electoral district boundaries to reflect population changes.

Gerrymandering

Manipulating electoral boundaries to favor one party or group.

Fertile Crescent

Region known for the domestication of wheat, barley, sheep, and goats.

East Asia

Region known for the domestication of rice, soybeans, and pigs.

Sub-Saharan Africa

Region known for the domestication of sorghum and yams.

Mesoamerica

Region known for the domestication of maize, beans, and squash.

Andes

Region known for the domestication of potatoes and llamas.

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of crops and livestock between the Old and New Worlds.

Survey Methods - Metes and Bounds

Uses natural features and landmarks to define boundaries, common in eastern U.S.

Survey Methods - Long Lot

Narrow lots with access to a river or road, common in French colonial areas.

Survey Methods - Township and Range

Grid system based on lines of latitude/longitude, used in western U.S.

First Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic Revolution)

Occurred 10,000 years ago when humans shifted from hunting/gathering to farming.

Second Agricultural Revolution

Took place in the 18th-19th centuries, began in Western Europe, improving farming technology.

Third Agricultural Revolution (Green Revolution)

Mid-20th century use of high-yield seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, criticized for environmental effects.

Von Thünen Model - Key Ideas

Explains agricultural land use relative to market distance with four concentric rings.

Von Thünen Model - Assumptions

Assumes flat land, no obstacles, one central market, and increasing transportation costs with distance.

Female Roles in Food Production

Women often dominate subsistence farming, influenced by cultural norms and access to resources.

Fundamental Economic Problem

Scarcity of limited resources versus unlimited wants, leading to allocation choices.

Significance of the Industrial Revolution

Began in the 18th century in the UK, introducing mechanized production and leading to urbanization.

Sectors of the Economy - Primary

Involves extraction of natural resources like farming, fishing, and mining.