intro to psych midterm

Philosophical Roots

Psychology's foundation in philosophy, exploring knowledge and existence, and motivations for behavior (e.g., Aristotle).

Biological Roots

The connection between physiology and behavior, highlighting brain function's impact on human actions (e.g., Hippocrates).

Structuralism

An early psychological perspective focused on breaking down mental processes into basic parts (e.g., Wundt & Titchener).

Functionalism

A perspective emphasizing the purpose of mental processes and behaviors (e.g., William James).

Psychoanalysis

A psychological approach focusing on unconscious processes and childhood experiences (e.g., Sigmund Freud).

Behaviorism

A perspective prioritizing observable behavior over internal mental states (e.g., John Watson & B.F. Skinner).

Humanism

A psychological viewpoint emphasizing human goodness and potential for growth (e.g., Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow).

Positive Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases as the other also increases.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases while the other decreases.

No Correlation

A lack of relationship between two variables.

Multiculturalism

The study of how culture influences behavior and mental processes.

Neuroscience

The exploration of the relationship between behavior and brain biology, aided by technology (e.g., brain imaging).

Positive Psychology

A focus on strengths and successes, aiming to enhance well-being and happiness.

Biopsychosocial Theory

A comprehensive approach considering biological, psychological, and social influences on behavior.

Pseudo-Psychology

Unscientific psychological claims that may appear credible (e.g., phrenology).

Critical Thinking

A method to counter confirmation bias and belief perseverance.

Descriptive Research

Research aimed at describing characteristics of a population.

Correlational Research

Research examining the relationship between two variables, reported as a correlation coefficient.

Experimental Research

Research manipulating one variable to observe effects on another, establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Independent Variable

Variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

A variable that is expected to depend upon the independent variable.

Neuron

A specialized cell that receives information and transmits it to other cells.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers in the brain, including acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, epinephrine, serotonin, and GABA.

DCBA

What is the direction of neuronal transmission?

Acetylcholine (ACh)

The most common neurotransmitter, crucial for autonomic and muscular functions.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in motor regulation, mood, and attention.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter essential for learning and memory.

Epinephrine

Also known as adrenaline, it triggers the "fight or flight" response.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter linked to mood, sleep, and cognitive functions.

Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, preventing excessive brain activity.

Nerves

Clusters of neurons with long axons.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that transmit signals from the body to the CNS.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry signals from the CNS to the body.

Interneurons

Neurons that relay messages between other neurons.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprising the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects the CNS to the body, managing sensory input and motor output.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements.

Autonomic Nervous System

Manages involuntary actions, divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates the body's fight, flight, freeze, and fawn response.

Fight (Sympathetic Nervous System)

When your body feels that it is in danger and believes you can overpower the threat, you’ll respond in this mode. Your brain releases signals to your body, preparing it for the physical demands.

Flight (Sympathetic Nervous System)

If your body believes you cannot overcome the danger but can avoid it by running away, you’ll respond in this mode. A surge of hormones, like adrenaline, gives your body the stamina to run from danger longer than you typically could.

Freeze (Sympathetic Nervous System)

This stress response causes you to feel stuck in place. This response happens when your body doesn’t think you can fight or flight.

Fawn (Sympathetic Nervous System)

The response is used after an unsuccessful fight, flight, or freeze attempt.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for rest and digestion.

Human Brain

Logic and reasoning.

Mammalian Brain

More complex feelings and reaction.

Lizard Brain

Basic functions.

The Brain Stem or Hindbrain (The Lizard Brain)

An extension of the spinal cord. Bodily activities essential to survival, such as changes in heartbeat and breathing, the focusing of attention, and patterns of arousal (that is sleeping versus waking).

Medulla (The Lizard Brain)

Controls many vital autonomic functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

Pons (The Lizard Brain)

Helps coordinate movement on each side of the body.

Cerebellum (The Lizard Brain)

Involved in the coordination of motor movements as well as basic facets of memory and learning.

Reticular Formation (The Lizard Brain)

Involved in the coordination of motor movements as well as basic facets of memory and learning.

The Midbrain/Limbic System (The Mammalian Brain)

Located in the middle of the brain. The part of the brain that regulates emotion.

Thalamus (The Mammalian Brain)

Processes and relays movement and sensory information, passing it to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus (The Mammalian Brain)

Connects with many other regions of the brain and is responsible for controlling hunger, thirst, emotions, body temperature regulation, and circadian rhythms.

Amygdala (The Mammalian Brain)

An almond-shaped structure, implicated in the experience of negative emotions like fear.

The Cortex/Cerebrum (The Human Brain)

The last part of the brain to evolve. The outer layer of the brain. Responsible for “executive functioning.” What makes us humans.

Frontal Lobe (The Human Brain)

Located at the front of the brain and is associated with reasoning, motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive language.

Motor Cortex (The Human Brain)

This area of the brain receives information to carry out body movements.

Parietal Lobe (The Human Brain)

Located in the middle section of the brain and is associated with processing tactile sensory information, such as pressure, touch, and pain.

Somatosensory Cortex (The Human Brain)

Located in this lobe and is essential to the processing of the body’s senses.

Temporal Lobe (The Human Brain)

Located on the bottom section of the brain. This lobe is also the location of the primary auditory cortex, which is important for interpreting sounds and the language we hear.

Hippocampus (The Human Brain)

Also located in the temporal lobe, which is why this portion of the brain is also heavily associated with the formation of memories. (Looks like a seahorse)

Occipital Lobe (The Human Brain)

Located at the back portion of the brain and is associated with vision.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Hans Selye's model of stress response: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion.

Immune System

The body’s innate method of defending against bacteria, viruses, infections, injuries, and anything else that could cause illness or death.

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

The study of the interaction between psychological factors and the immune system.

Psychophysiological Illnesses

Any illness that stress can cause, worsen, or maintain.

Coping Mechanisms

Strategies to manage stress, including mindfulness, social support, aerobic exercise, and acupuncture.

Mindfulness

An increased awareness of what is going on inside of you–your moment-to-moment physical and psychological experiences–with an emphasis on just feeling it rather than analyzing it or avoiding it.

Social Support

The relationships one has with friends, family, and others that can be beneficial when experiencing stress.

Aerobic Exercise

Physical exercise that maintains an increased heart rate for a prolonged time.

Acupuncture

A technique in which needles are inserted into the skin at specific points to alleviate stress or pain.

Developmental Psychology

The study of changes in body, mind, and interactions throughout the lifespan.

Cross-sectional Design

Comparing different age groups at the same time.

Longitudinal Design

Comparing the same group at different times.

Stability v. Change

As we advance, how much do we stay the same and how much do we change?

Continuous v. Stage

As we change/develop, do we do it suddenly or gradually?

Nature v. Nurture

What determines how we change over time?

Zygote

The fertilized egg from conception to about two weeks.

Embryo

The developing human from about two weeks to two months.

Fetus

The developing human from about two months to birth.

Teratogens

Substances that can harm a developing embryo or fetus (e.g., Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) - Abnormalities caused by mothers who drank alcohol excessively during their pregnancy).

Schemas

Mental frameworks for understanding new information.

Assimilation

Integrating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage (0-2 years) focused on sensory and motor experiences.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage (2-7 years) focused on language and symbols, including letters and numbers

Concrete Operations

Piaget’s third stage (7-11 years) focused on conservation, reversibility, serial ordering, and a mature understanding of cause-and-effect relationships.

Formal Operations

Piaget’s fourth stage (12+ years) focused on abstract thinking, including logic, deductive reasoning, comparison, and classification.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky’s theory of the gap between what a child can already do and what he or she is not yet capable of doing without help.

Scaffolding

Vygotsky’s theory that as an adult guides a child, the adult gradually minimizes the guidance and support until the child can do the task alone.

Seperation Anxiety

Fussing and crying when a parent leaves the room.

Stranger Anxiety

Manifested by crying when an unfamiliar person approaches.

Critical Period

Certain developmental tasks are likely to be influenced by outside events.

Secure Attachment

Infants using the parent as a supportive base camp to operate and explore.

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

Infants appearing to ignore parents, are not upset when they leave, and show little emotional response when they return.

Insecure-Resistant Attachment

They stay close to the parent, become very upset when they leave, and appear to be angry when they return. They are not easily consoled.

Disorganized Attachment

Infants seem to be confused or disoriented. They look away from the parent while being comforted and display a rather blank or flat expression.

Permissive Parent

Few rules, accepting, lenient, low expectations (You’re the boss).