Studied by 171 people
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Soma
cell body of a neuron
Dendrites
a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
myelin sheath
layer that covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
Reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
Endorphins
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
endocrine system
Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by producing hormones.
pituitary gland
based in the hypothalamus, releases the hormones into the body
Hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention, and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.
acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter associated with muscle action, learning, and memory
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter which helps control alertness and arousal
GABA
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.
corpus callosum
large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; handles incoming and outcoming signals
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities
reticular formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
spinal cord
Nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the body and brain
Cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.
Central nervous system
The brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
All those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord.
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
operational definition
Precisely worded outline of steps in a study
case study
to examine one individual or group in depth in hope pf revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
survey
method to gather self-reported attitudes/behaviors of a group through random questioning
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment.
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment.
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
random sample
equal chance sample representing a population fairly
random assignment
each participant has an equal chance of selection for the experimental or control group
double-blind procedure
neither the experimenter nor the subject knows to what group the subjects are in
placebo
a fake drug used in the testing of medication
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by change
illusory correlation
assumption that a relationship exists between two variables exists
standard deviation
average difference between each scores and the mean
informed consent
ethical principle that research participants should receive sufficient information to enable them to decide participate
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants
just-world phenomenon
good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people
altruism
unselfish concern for the welfare of others
aggression
behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person
frustration-aggression principle
When someone is blocked from achieving a goal, the frustration can trigger anger, leading to aggression
bystander effect
probability of a person's helping in an emergency is greater when there are no other bystanders than when there are other bystanders
social loafing
reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work by themselves
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
reciprocity norm
if someone helps you , you dont hurt them
conflict
perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, each rationally pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group
ingroup vs. outgroup phenomenon
Ingroup is the people with whom we share a common group identity. Outgroup are those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup. bias towards ingroup
fundamental attribution error
tendency to make internal judgment without looking at external factors
diffusion of responsibility
reduction in feelings of personal responsibility in the presence of others
deindividuation
tendency for people to lose individuality when in a large group
social-responsibility norm
expectation that people will help those needing their help
Philip Zimbardo
Conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment, studying how role affects attitude
Groupthink
going along with a group to maintain good harmony
social facilitation
phenomenon where people show increased levels of effort and performance when in the presence of others
Solomon Asch
conducted a series of experiments designed to demonstrate the power of conformity
Stanley Milgram
conducted the milgram experiment to see power of obedience
Foot-in-theDoor phenomenon
tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
Reciprocity
the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us
Obedience
changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure
Conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
Nuerons
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
just noticeable difference
the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected
signal detection theory
theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions
cocktail party effect
Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
sleep spindles
short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
wish fulfillment theory
assumes that dreams are attempts by the unconscious to resolve some repressed conflict
information processing theory
dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories
Physiological functioning theory
regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways
intermittent reinforcement
Occasionally reinforcing a response slows down learning but makes the learning more resistant to stopping
continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
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