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How is climate change different from other types of social problems that we face?
It has a variety of causes, a deadline, not one single solution, long term implication, and corsses geogrpahical barriers.
What kind of approach, and what kinds of solutions, are required in order to address climate change?
Requires cooperation between different actors, sectors, and spheres like experts, NGOs, and ordinary citizens.
How does the nature of climate change pose particular challenges, given our political systems?
Governance is differentaround the world based on the needs of an area, landscpae, and politcal involvement. It’s also long term and requires governement cooperation which is hard with short term limits.
What is governance and how is it relevant to climate change?
Governance is how issues are resolved through the cooperation between formal and informal instruments, like government and corporations.
Why is global-scale climate change mitigation such a challenge politically?
Requires cooperation between governments and is hard with changing leaders. There is also the issue of free riding and misaligned costs and benefits.
What alternatives are there to UNFCCC negotiations, and why have these other initiatives arisen?
There has been a lack of consensus between member nations and negotiation groups have fragmented, making more of a divide between industrialized and developing countries.
How did the UNFCCC process fundamentally change its approach between Kyoto and Paris?
The UNFCCC was originally a top-down process, causing the Kyoto Protocol to struggle due to a lack of participation by key countries. Before the Paris Agreement, they transitioned to a hybrid bottom-up approach, allowing more cooperation between parties and giving states more autonomy.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a bottom-up approach?
Bottom-up allows flexibility and learning to occur to improve policies over time, leading to more cooperation and easier agreements. But it also leads to a lack of transparency between policy makers, NGOs, media, and people, causing less environmental effectiveness.
According to Kuh, what doomed the Kyoto Protocol? In her view, does the Paris Agreement have a better chance of success? Why or why not. and what challenges remain?
The Kyoto faield due to its top-down approach, meaning coutries were all held to the same standards. It never acheived universal participation, and many Annex I countries failed to submit targets. The Paris Agreement has a better chance because countries decide on their own quantitative emissions targets.
What does the Paris Agreement commit to continue with (without any innovation) and what issues does it leave out and defer to future negotiations?
The Paris Agreement continues with loss and damage, forest conservation, and adaptation. Small developing nations are more affected by loss and damage, and it also leaves out country-to-country exchanges and an international carbon market.
According to Young, what can help ensure the success of international agreements?
International agreements are often conservative and do not make difficult demands for nations. They must ionclude the ability to make amendments, financial assistance, public concern, and flexibility to “ratchet up” and allow more autonomy, which will in turn be better more the environment.
What conditions does Young identify that make international agreements (and particularly implementation of the Paris Agreement) difficult?
Remaining uncertainties, internal debates among policymakers, leadership, public opinion, implementation costs, influence of influential actors, and relying on the slowest country.
What are the economic arguments for and against efforts to mitigate climate change?
Will be more expensive later and job creation bu short term can be expensive and jobs can be lost too.
Other than through regulation, how can governments enable and encourage climate change mitigation?
Working with other groups, incentive programs, campaigns, listening to public concerns.
Are governments the only actors involved in mitigation efforts?
Governments are not the only actors involved in climate change mitigation efforts, civil society actors and stakeholders are also involved.
What are the arguments for and against voluntary (as opposed to command-and-control) measures?
Voluntary measures for climate change mitigation are good because they are responsive to changing circumstances and include space for innovation. However, they do not include hard law and are self regulatory, which can make them less effective.
What are some disadvantages of state (vs. federal) carbon taxes?
State level carbon taxes can provide revenue, but taxes are cyclical, and the stream of revenue would not be consistent. State carbon taxes are also less effective due to the fact they cover less emissions. Lots of carbon leakage.
What can states do to increase the effectiveness of a carbon tax?
If tax rates start too low or rise slowly they aren’t as effective, excessive taxes create opposition, so they need to be somewhere in the middle while also being gradual and predictable.
What are the economic arguments for and against: taxes on fuel and electricity, income taxes, per-capita rebates or targeted benefits?
Carbon taxes can boost revenue that can be used to meet fiscal and environmental goals.
How can state-level policy-makers maximize benefits and reduce negative impacts from a carbon tax?
Reinvest revenue for good public use, helping people transition to energy efficient, giving exemptions
In what ways does a democratic political system promote environmental protection? In what ways does it inhibit environmental protection?
Democratic governments risk losing reelection and therefore have more urgency to implement policy. At the same time, this inhibits environmental protection when administrations oppose environmentalism or public opinion. The size and composition of democratic political institutions also. Transparency and accountability, independent media puts pressure on people, and advocacy lobbying also impact policy.
How does the population's "social cognitive skills" influence a democracy's environmental policy?
Social cognitive skills lead to greater environmentalism through public awareness and economic development. Cognitive ability increases the chances of adopting pro-environmental policies by increasing GDP per capita. Studies have found that “wealth producing activities” are done more effectively with higher levels of cognition, and these increased levels of competence have been linked to more environmental policies being created and implemented.
What economic factors influence a country's willingness to impose environmental regulations?
Increased GDP per capita resulting from environmental protection can encourage governments to implement policies. Trade policies can also influence policy, with less developed countries “racing to the bottom” for comparative advantage. Job growth or loss may also influence opinion, along with public awareness.
How does public opinion within each state influence the environmental voting behavior of members of Congress?
Opinions of the median voter are reflected in government, with both Democrats and Republicans appealing to voters through less extreme policies. Environmental advocates have educated much of the public, but unless they get to conservatives, environmental policy cannot reach the federal level.
What other factors influence this voting behavior?
States that produce large amounts of fossil fuels may be less likely to support environmental protection because restrictions on emissions directly affect their economy and industries, while states with more potential for renewable energy and less to lose from restrictions are more likely to support legislation. Household income also influences voting behavior, with lower income being associated with…
Who are politicians aiming to please with their votes on environmental legislation?
Politicians are appealing to the median voters’ interest. They are aiming to get support from moderate voters by using less extreme policies. If they aren’t trying to appeal to median voters, politicians enact policies that help them keep their position and ideological preferences.
Is general public opinion the only factor influencing politicians' voting behavior?
No, politicians’ voting behavior is also influenced by their own ideologies and the opinions of elite supporters.
How can cities help each other to take action to mitigate climate change? What can't they do?
Horizontal influences between cities inspire others to join climate agreements, meaning they recognize their responsibility for the issue and want to help. Increasing competition makes cities want to take further action and develop better solutions. Signing agreements can also be just symbolic and not really mean much in mitigation efforts. If agreements have no enforcement, it is very possible no change happens. Cities can model their actions after each other, they can’t make laws and have less power overall.
How can state and national governments also encourage municipal-level action on climate change?
Cities do not have as much governmental power as states, and therefore rely on states to enact climate change policy. States are given the powers to mandate compliance with policies on climate and they can provide more resources (funds, workers, etc) to allow mitigation efforts to occur. National governments can provide support and pressure to meet climate goals.
What types of factors, at what scales, are most important in influencing municipal action on climate change?
National governmental action is the best for influencing action because all cities are required to follow it regardless of the state or municipality’s policies. Other than that, state powers are more effective than city's because they are granted power through federalism and can therefore implement stricter policy. Infrastructure and public concern at the city level can affect change. NGOs didn’t have a big impact on city and state action, even if they can influence opinion.
What kinds of actions can cities take to mitigate climate change, in terms of regulations
Cities could require the use of sustainable energy sources and could implement green building codes required for new buildings. Working with farmers for biomass, working with private owners to use land for renewable energy. Regulate emissions businesses can produce.
What kinds of actions can cities take to mitigate climate change, in terms of financial incentives
The government and private companies financially invest in programs so municipalities can further their work. Rebates and reimbursements can be used to give free energy improvements to people, helping overall efforts. Subsidies for people that use green energy, can afford using sustainable energy sources even if they are more expensive. Cities can put taxes or tariffs on things to disincentivize activities. Rewards and grants for fully using renewables.
What kinds of actions can cities take to mitigate climate change, in terms of other forms of support for business and citizens
Community involvement in climate mitigation efforts, public-private partnerships, and research, developing organizations to help.
What role can retailers play in reducing products' carbon footprint?
Retailers can govern supply chain behavior by measuring and monitoring carbon footprint and taking action to reduce it. They use this emissions data to endorse actions that will lead to reductions like demanding action in other parts of the supply chain.
What motivates them to do so?
Consumers have access to information on carbon footprints, which could affect their decisions to support a retailer. Retailers have a desire to be seen as a part of the solution. They may not actually care, but it looks best for the retailers to do something. Green advertising to help their reputation.
How can they achieve this?
Collecting data on carbon emissions, analyzing that data
Panopticon - suppliers feel like they are being watched at all times, but they may not be. Amazon can’t watch all suppliers at all times, but they can at any time, suppliers think they always are.
Does this get to the root of the problem?
Not fully, it depends on the company because many don’t care much about actually helping.
What is the ultimate result of capitalism and why?
Green capitalism utilized a cap and trade system that didn’t work, and the Kyoto protocol failed due to globalized capitalist markets. Ecological collapse, overconsumption, increase in demand and desire for profit.
In a capitalist system, can governments solve environmental problems?
Maximizing profits and saving the environment can’t coexist. “Green taxes” from a capitalist government don’t help the situation, they will just cause unemployment and recession. Overconsumption is ingrained in society, and we can’t “shop our way” to sustainability.
What is the solution?
Moving away from the capitalist system, transition to socialism. Would require restarting international markets, redistributing money and power. Likely not possible to make this change, if so it would have to be gradual.
What are some challenges faced by consumers who want to buy "green" products?
Consumers that want to buy more “green” products still face the issue of consumerism, they don’t need to buy something new just because it's “green”. The process of being an “ethical consumer” is gradual and requires giving up purchasing power, buying items viewed as lower quality, inconvenient purchasing, and looking for items that aren't available.
How can people's choices be influenced toward more environmentally friendly products?
Accessibility of products
What are some ethical dilemmas inherent to green consumerism?
Greenwashing, overconsumption of green products, inequity
Does it solve the underlying problem?
No, there needs to be a change in entire system, not just the products we use
Where did the ideology of “growthism” come from? What does it overlook?
Height of cold war, if countries want to improve social indicators, they should focus purely on economic growth, rather than public health systems
What nation-scale economic strategies actually promote human well-being?
Public health systems like sanitation, healthcare, education, housing, and better wages/working conditions.
Why do growthist ideologies still predominate? What would be a better way to measure economic progress?
Political preferences, Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) is a better way to measure, adjust for income inequality and social/environmental costs of economic activity.
Why, according to the author, is the “economy vs. the environment” moral debate false? What is the real choice we face?
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