biological psychology

week 3

dendrites

branch-like extensions that receive info. from other cells

axon

the long extension from the cell body of a neuron through which electrical impulses pass

myeline sheath

a tight coat of cells composed of lipids that help transmit info. to other neurons

terminal buttons

structures at the end of a neuron that send signals from a neuron to adjacent cells

synapse

the place at which transmission of info. b/w neuron occurs

resting potential

condition in which the neuron is not firing

graded potential

a spreading voltage change that occurs when the neural membrane receives a signal from another cell

action potential

a temporary shift in the polarity of the cell brain - leading to the firing of a neuron

receptors

protein molecules in the postsynaptic membrane that pick up neurotransmitters

glutamate

neurotransmitter that largely plays an excitatory role in the ns

• involved in memory formation

• synaptic plasticity

• role in learning

• linked w/ neurodegenerative diseases like alzheimer’s

GABA

• gamma-aminobutyric acid

• inhibitory role

• for synaptic communication

• regulating anxiety

dopamine

• involving thought, feeling, motivation and behaviour

• emotional arousal and experience of please

• learning through reward behaviours

• degeneration of ___-releasing neurons in the substantia nigra causes parkinson’s disease

parkinson’s disease

a disorder characterised by uncontrollable tremors and difficulty initiating behaviour

serotonin

• neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, sleep, eating, arousal and pain

• decreased serotonin is common in depression

• inhibitory role - for aggression and antisocial behaviour

acetylcholine

• neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory

• muscle movement

endorphins

• chemicals that elevate mood

• reduce pain

endocrine system

collection of glands that secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream

• control various bodily and psychological functions

hormones

chemicals secreted directly into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands

adrenaline

a hormone that triggers physiological arousal, particularly in potential danger situations

noradrenaline

a hormone that triggers physiological arousal, particularly in potential danger situations

pituitary gland

• oval structure

• size of a pea

• ‘master gland’

• many of the hormones it releases stimulate the other glands

• connected more directly to the cns than any of the other endocrine glands

thyroid gland

• located in the neck

• releases hormones that control growth and metabolism

• affects energy and mood

adrenal glands

• located above the kidneys

• secrete adrenaline and other hormones during emergencies

gonands

• influence sexual development and behaviour

• prdouce testosterone in males

• estrogen in females

somatic nervous system

• conscious, voluntary movements

• transmits sensory info. to the cns and carries out motor movement commands

autonomic nervous system

conveys info. to and from internal bodily structures

• carry out basic life processes such as digestion and respiration

• consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system

• typically activated in response to threats

• ready the body for fight-flight-freeze

• stops digestion, increases heart rate, dilates pupils

parasympathetic nervous system

• supports mundane/routine activities

• maintain the body’s store of energy

• regulates blood sugar levels, secretes saliva, regulates heart rate and pupil size

reflexes

a behaviour that is elicited automatically by an environmental stimulus

cerebrum

• ‘thinking’ centre of the brain

• includes the cortex and subcortical structures; basal ganglia and limbic system

• processing info. and initiating movement

hindbrain

• medulla oblongata

• cerebellum

• reticular formation

medulla oblongata

• lowest brain structure

• extension of the spinal cord that links the cord to the brain

• controls vital physiological functions as heartbeat, circulation and regulation

cerebellum

• large structure at the back of the brain

• involves in movement

• coordinating smooth, well-sequenced functions

• maintaining balance and posture

reticular formation

• sends axons to many parts of the brain and spinal cord

• functions are to maintain consciousness, regulate arousal levels and modulate activity of neurons throughout the cns

• damage to reticular can affect sleep patterns & ability to be alert/attentive

midbrain

consists of the tectum and tegmentum

• involved in some auditory and visual functions, movement, and conscious arousal and activation

tectum

• involved in vision and hearing

• part of midbrain

tegmentrum

• in the midbrain

• serves functions related to movement

forebrain

• involved in complex sensory, emotional, cognitive and behavioural processes

• consists of the hypothalamus, thalamus and cerebrum

hypothalamus

• cited directly below the thalamus

• involved in the regulation of eating, sleeping, sexual activity, movement and emotion

thalamus

• set of nuclei above the hypothalamus

• acts as a relay station for sensory info. processing it and transmitting it to higher brain centres

limbic system

• set of structures

• functions involving emotion, motivation, learning and memory

• amygdala, hippocampus

amygdala

• almond-shaped structure

• involved in many emotional processes, esp in learning and remembering emotionally significant events

hippocampus

important for storing new info. in memory so that a person can consciously remember it

basal ganglia

• set of structures located near the thalamus and hypothalamus

• involved in movement and judgements that require minimal conscious thoughts

• damage can affect posture and muscle tone

cerebral cortex

• many-layered surface of the cerebrum

• 3 functions:

  1. allows flexible construction of sequences of voluntary movements

  2. permits subtle discriminations among complex sensory patterns

  3. makes symbolic thinking possible

• 2 halves to the cerebrum

primary areas of the cerebral cortex

• involved in sensory functions

• direct control of motor movements - initiate them

• process raw sensory info

association areas of the cerebral cortex

involved in complex mental processes such as forming perceptions, ideas and plans

corpus callosum

a band of fibres that connects the 2 hemispheres of the brain

occipital lobes

• located in the rear portion of the cortex

• specialised for vision

• receive visual input from the thalamus

parietal lobes

• located in front of the occipital lobes

• sense of touch, detecting movement in the environment

• primary area: somatosensory cortex

frontal lobe

• movement

• attention

• planning

• social skills

• abstract thinking

• memory

• aspects of personality

broca’s area

• located in the left frontal lobe at the base of the cortex

• movements of the mouth and tongue necessary for speech and production in the use of grammar

temporal lobes

• located in the lower side portions of the cortex

• audio and language

• hippocampus, wernicke’s area, amygdala

wernicke’s area

• language comprehension

• damage may cause aphasia; difficulty understanding what words mean

neurogenesis

the process by which neurons can be produced/repair themselves structurally/biochemically in the cns

cognitive neuropsychology

a branch of cognitive psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes