biological psychology

week 3

neurons

cells in the ns

sensory neurons

transmit info. from sensory cells to the brain

interneurons

nerve cells that connect other neurons w/ one another

motor neurons

transmit commands from interneurons to the glands and muscles of the body

• often through the spinal cord

dendrites

branch-like extensions that receive info. from other cells

cell body

includes a nucleus that contains the genetic material of the cell (the chromosomes)

axon

the long extension from the cell body of a neuron through which electrical impulses pass

myeline sheath

a tight coat of cells composed of lipids that help transmit info. to other neurons

terminal buttons

structures at the end of a neuron that send signals from a neuron to adjacent cells

synapse

the place at which transmission of info. b/w neuron occurs

resting potential

condition in which the neuron is not firing

graded potential

a spreading voltage change that occurs when the neural membrane receives a signal from another cell

action potential

a temporary shift in the polarity of the cell brain - leading to the firing of a neuron

neurotransmitters

chemicals that transmit info. from one cell to another

receptors

protein molecules in the postsynaptic membrane that pick up neurotransmitters

excitatory neurotransmitters

• depolarise the postsynaptic cell membrain

• increase action potential

inhibitory neurotransmitters

• hyperpolarise the membrane

• reduces action potential

glutamate

neurotransmitter that largely plays an excitatory role in the ns

• involved in memory formation

• synaptic plasticity

• role in learning

• linked w/ neurodegenerative diseases like alzheimer’s

GABA

• gamma-aminobutyric acid

• inhibitory role

• for synaptic communication

• regulating anxiety

dopamine

• involving thought, feeling, motivation and behaviour

• emotional arousal and experience of please

• learning through reward behaviours

• degeneration of ___-releasing neurons in the substantia nigra causes parkinson’s disease

parkinson’s disease

a disorder characterised by uncontrollable tremors and difficulty initiating behaviour

serotonin

• neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, sleep, eating, arousal and pain

• decreased serotonin is common in depression

• inhibitory role - for aggression and antisocial behaviour

acetylcholine

• neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory

• muscle movement

endorphins

• chemicals that elevate mood

• reduce pain

endocrine system

collection of glands that secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream

• control various bodily and psychological functions

hormones

chemicals secreted directly into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands

adrenaline

a hormone that triggers physiological arousal, particularly in potential danger situations

noradrenaline

a hormone that triggers physiological arousal, particularly in potential danger situations

pituitary gland

• oval structure

• size of a pea

• ‘master gland’

• many of the hormones it releases stimulate the other glands

• connected more directly to the cns than any of the other endocrine glands

thyroid gland

• located in the neck

• releases hormones that control growth and metabolism

• affects energy and mood

adrenal glands

• located above the kidneys

• secrete adrenaline and other hormones during emergencies

gonands

• influence sexual development and behaviour

• prdouce testosterone in males

• estrogen in females

central nervous system (cns)

consists of the brain and the spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (pns)

• consists of neurons that convey messages to and from the cns

• connects cns to rest of the body

somatic nervous system

• conscious, voluntary movements

• transmits sensory info. to the cns and carries out motor movement commands

autonomic nervous system

conveys info. to and from internal bodily structures

• carry out basic life processes such as digestion and respiration

• consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system

• typically activated in response to threats

• ready the body for fight-flight-freeze

• stops digestion, increases heart rate, dilates pupils

parasympathetic nervous system

• supports mundane/routine activities

• maintain the body’s store of energy

• regulates blood sugar levels, secretes saliva, regulates heart rate and pupil size

reflexes

a behaviour that is elicited automatically by an environmental stimulus

cerebrum

• ‘thinking’ centre of the brain

• includes the cortex and subcortical structures; basal ganglia and limbic system

• processing info. and initiating movement

cortex

spinal cord

• long cord

• sends info. from sensory neurons in various parts of the body to the brain

hindbrain

• medulla oblongata

• cerebellum

• reticular formation

medulla oblongata

• lowest brain structure

• extension of the spinal cord that links the cord to the brain

• controls vital physiological functions as heartbeat, circulation and regulation

cerebellum

• large structure at the back of the brain

• involves in movement

• coordinating smooth, well-sequenced functions

• maintaining balance and posture

reticular formation

• sends axons to many parts of the brain and spinal cord

• functions are to maintain consciousness, regulate arousal levels and modulate activity of neurons throughout the cns

• damage to reticular can affect sleep patterns & ability to be alert/attentive

midbrain

consists of the tectum and tegmentum

• involved in some auditory and visual functions, movement, and conscious arousal and activation

tectum

• involved in vision and hearing

• part of midbrain

tegmentrum

• in the midbrain

• serves functions related to movement

forebrain

• involved in complex sensory, emotional, cognitive and behavioural processes

• consists of the hypothalamus, thalamus and cerebrum

hypothalamus

• cited directly below the thalamus

• involved in the regulation of eating, sleeping, sexual activity, movement and emotion

thalamus

• set of nuclei above the hypothalamus

• acts as a relay station for sensory info. processing it and transmitting it to higher brain centres

limbic system

• set of structures

• functions involving emotion, motivation, learning and memory

• amygdala, hippocampus

amygdala

• almond-shaped structure

• involved in many emotional processes, esp in learning and remembering emotionally significant events

hippocampus

important for storing new info. in memory so that a person can consciously remember it

basal ganglia

• set of structures located near the thalamus and hypothalamus

• involved in movement and judgements that require minimal conscious thoughts

• damage can affect posture and muscle tone

cerebral cortex

• many-layered surface of the cerebrum

• 3 functions:

  1. allows flexible construction of sequences of voluntary movements

  2. permits subtle discriminations among complex sensory patterns

  3. makes symbolic thinking possible

• 2 halves to the cerebrum

primary areas of the cerebral cortex

• involved in sensory functions

• direct control of motor movements - initiate them

• process raw sensory info

association areas of the cerebral cortex

involved in complex mental processes such as forming perceptions, ideas and plans

corpus callosum

a band of fibres that connects the 2 hemispheres of the brain

occipital lobes

• located in the rear portion of the cortex

• specialised for vision

• receive visual input from the thalamus

parietal lobes

• located in front of the occipital lobes

• sense of touch, detecting movement in the environment

• primary area: somatosensory cortex

frontal lobe

• movement

• attention

• planning

• social skills

• abstract thinking

• memory

• aspects of personality

broca’s area

• located in the left frontal lobe at the base of the cortex

• movements of the mouth and tongue necessary for speech and production in the use of grammar

temporal lobes

• located in the lower side portions of the cortex

• audio and language

• hippocampus, wernicke’s area, amygdala

wernicke’s area

• language comprehension

• damage may cause aphasia; difficulty understanding what words mean

neuroplasticity

describes the way the neural structure of the brain changes itself in response to environmental and behavioural responses

neurogenesis

the process by which neurons can be produced/repair themselves structurally/biochemically in the cns

cognitive neuropsychology

a branch of cognitive psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes

gene

unit of hereditary transmission

heritability

refers to genetic influences on variability among individuals