community development, participation and empowerment, chronic conditions, personality/leadership styles, ethical issues, emotional intelligence, measures of epidemiology

Community development

A structured intervention that gives communities greater control over the conditions that affects their lives

aim of community development

aims to address the issues of powerlessness and disadvantage so it involes all members of society, and empowers people as part of a process of social change

6 principles of community development

• sustainability

• diversity

• human rights

• social justice

• addressing disadvantage

• valuing local knowledge, culture and skills

sustainability

means of configuring communities and human activity so that society, its members and economies are able to meet their needs and expess their greatest potential in the present, while planning and acting for the ability to maintain these ideals long-term

diversity

refers the equality of being different. Gender, age, ethnicity, culture, education, healthcare. Community development needs to respect diversity

human rights

basic rights and freedoms which all humans are entitled

social justice

• historical inequalitites in so far as they affect current injustices should be corrected until the actual inequalities no longer exist

• restribution of wealth, power, and status for the individual, community and societal good

• it is government’s responsibility to ensure a basic quality of life for all its citezens

addressing disadvantage

responsibility of governments, policy makers, treasury and united nations. Funds need to be directed towards programs aimed at reducing poverty and disadvantage

valuing local knowledge, culture and skills

all communities have an already existing real and potential skills and recources.

empowerment

refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social or economic strength of individuals and communities.

• It often involves the empowered developing confidence in their own capacities.

• occurs when people realise they can make a contribution or solve problems, and they have the right and responsibility to do so.

• empowerment allows more people, organisations and communities to gain control over their lives

individual empowerment

individual’s ability to make decisions and have control over their personal life

community empowerment

individuals acting collectively to gain greater influence and conrol over the determinants of health and the quality of life in their community.

Participation

the active involvement of individuals or groups in decision-making processes

relationship between participation and empowerment

• The more community members that are involved in change, empowerment is increased

• Increased empowerment gived the comunity more control over their recources and decision-making abilities. → this leads to sustainable change.

• Increased empowerment motivates community members to remain involved in decision-making and action

factors influencing level of participation:

• time pressure

• needs of community

• skills and experience of participants

• nature of intervention

Levels of participation

Outline how much input the community has in regards to decision making and acting in the intervention effort

• information

• consultation

• deciding together

• acting together

• supporting community interest

information

• informing people in the community what is planned

• organisers make all decisions and carry out intervention in the community

• community not involved, just informed

consultation

• process of asking for feedback about the interventions planned

• community more involved- able to give opinion and feedback

• untimate decision made and intervention carried out by organisers.

• feedback may not be taken into consideration

deciding together

• organsiers work with people in the community to make the decision together about what will happen.

• may be vote or discussion

• community member still dont put the plan into action but have significant say in what is done

acting together

organisers and community would decide what to do together then put the plan into action together

supporting community interest

• community conduct their own project/intervention themselves with the support of external providers

• community have all decision making power and they put the plan into action themselves.

• highest level of empowerment

• grants, advice, support which are provided by external recources

when is information appropriate

• when course of action is already been decided, usually by expert

• giving info on something already in progress so community is informed

information example

government departments decide how to improve the city, they make all the decisions and carry out the intervention for the community. The government produces a series of TV commercials and billboards the inform the city what will happen and when.

when is consultation appropriate 

• when it is necessary to evaluate or improve existing services

• may be limited options and people choose among already estabished services

• time limit and decision may be needed quickly- the deciders can consult to get public opinion to carry though the deciding process so everyone has a chance to be involved

consultation appropriate

Government departments offer a number of options as to how the city could be transformed. The government produces a series of TV commercials and billboard ads that inform the city what could happen and give a few options. The public is encouraged to give feedback in the form of an online survey and by attending open forums with council members. The ultimate decision is made by the government, and the intervention is carried out by contractors employed by the government.

when is deciding together appropriate

• important so everyone feels ownership over the plan

• new inititave and want fresh ideas from as many scources as possible

• must be enough time to carry out the project so everyone has a chance to be involved

Deciding together example

The government departments work with the people of the city to come up with plans about how they could reshape the city. A vote or referendum is held to allow the city members to decide on how they could best develop the city.

When is acting together appropriate

• when the intervention will be more effective than if it was run by a single entity

• when there is real commitment from the community and are willing to give the time and effort required

Acting together example

The government departments work with the people of the city to come up with plans about how they could reshape the city. A vote or referendum is held to allow the city members to decide on how they could best develop the city. Once this has determined the plan of action, the community members carry out the project together with the government department.

when is supporting community interest appropriate

• appropreate when there is a commitment to communtiy empowerment and when this empowerment is more important than cost or time

• community must have desire to carry out the project and at least some of the skills and tools to start and run a successful intervention

• should be commitment by higher groups such as government to provide training and support when needed

supporting community interest example

The community comes up with their own project of intervention themselves and applies for a government grant to carry out the work. The government agencies offer advice and support to the community as they carry out the project.

define Chronic conditions

Illness that is prolonged in duration, does not usually go away itself, and is rarely cured completely

chronic conditions are:

• complex and multiple causes

• may exist in isolation or with other illness

• usually have gradual onset

• more prevalent with older age

• long-term and persistant

• most common and leading cause of mortality

Arthritis

• Disease causing stiffness and inflammation in joints

• symptoms- pain, striffness swelling, decreased range of motion

• treatments- medications, physcial therapy, exersice, surgery, weight loss helps improve quality of life

• can last for years of be lifelong- can not be cured

Asthma

• chronic lung disease, caused by inflammation and muscle tightening around the airways, which makes it harder to breathe

• symptoms- coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness

• treatments- Inhaler, education on triggers, treatments and symptoms,

  • cannot be cured

Cancer

a disease where cells in the body grow and multiply uncontrollably, potentially invading and destroying surrounding healthy tissue or spreading to other parts of the body

• symptoms- unexplained weight loss, fatigue, pain, persistent cough, changes in bowel or bladder habits, skin changes, and new or unusual lumps or swellings

• treatments- surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell transplant

Musculoskeletal Conditions

Musculoskeletal conditions are disorders that affect the bones, muscles, joints, and connective tissues.

• This includes conditions like osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, and back pain.

• These disorders can lead to chronic pain, mobility issues, disability and reduced quality of life.

• Usually, musculoskeletal conditions don’t cause mortality alone; they most commonly occur in conjunction with another cause of death.

Osteoporosis

• low bone mineral density → increases risk of fractures

  • People living with osteoporosis often also live with other chronic conditions, known as comorbidity

  • As people age, they naturally experience a decline in bone density and mobility, which significantly increases the risk of falls and fractures

    • This highlights the serious impact that age-related musculoskeletal decline can have on both health outcomes and mortality.

Endometriosis

chronic inflammatory condition where endometrium grows outside the uterus.

• Hormonal changes result in pain, inflammation, and the formation of scar tissue. Can lead to internal bleeding, cysts and adhesions.

• no cure, only treatments to such as pain relief, hormone therapy, and surgery can help manage the symptoms.

Cardiovascular disease

• Cardiovascular disease encompasses all diseases of the heart and blood vessels, including coronary heart disease, stroke, and hypertension.

• These conditions are responsible for more than one in four deaths in Australia.

• Risk factors include smoking, poor diet, lack of physical activity, and high blood pressure.

Diabetes

Diabetes is a metabolic condition where the body cannot effectively regulate blood glucose levels.~

• Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition, while Type 2 is primarily associated with lifestyle factors such as poor diet and inactivity

• It significantly increases the risk of other chronic conditions, including cardiovascular disease and kidney failure

Chronic Kidney Disease

occurs when the kidneys lose their ability to filter waste and fluid from the blood effectively.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

• progressive lung condition that includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis

• limits airflow and causes breathing difficulty

• Tobacco smoking is the leading cause, although long-term exposure to air pollutants and occupational hazards also contributes.

mental health conditions

• wide range of conditions that affect mood, thinking and behaviour.

• symptoms- persistent sadness or anxiety, changes in sleep or appetite, difficulty concentrating, social withdrawal, hallucinations, delusions, suicidal thoughts, substance abuse and unusual changes in personal hygiene or appearance

• treatments- psycotherapy, medication, supportive services

Negotiation

A process where two or more parties discuss an issue to reach a mutually acceptable agreement.

• Involves clear communication, active listening, compromise, and respect.

• Effective negotiators consider both their own needs and the needs of others.

Conflict resolution

A method of resolving disagreements in a constructive manner that satisfies all parties involved.

• It involves identifying the source of conflict, exploring potential solutions, and striving for a peaceful outcome.

• Requires emotional intelligence, empathy, and problem-solving skills.

Intrapersonal conflict

A psychological struggle within an individual, often involving conflicting values, desires, or beliefs.

Interpersonal conflict

A disagreement between two or more individuals.

• Common in friendships, families, workplaces, and schools, it can stem from differences in values, communication styles, or unmet needs.

Intragroup conflict

Conflict that occurs within a group.

• Arises when members of a team or group disagree on goals, roles, or procedures.

Intergroup conflict

Conflict between different groups, organisations, or communities.

• Often linked to competition for resources, differences in values, or historical tensions.

Mediation

A structured process where a neutral third party helps others resolve a conflict.

• The mediator facilitates communication, clarifies issues, and assists in developing mutually agreed-upon solutions, but does not make decisions on behalf of the parties.

Leadership

The ability to influence, guide, or direct individuals or groups to achieve goals.

• Effective leadership encompasses vision-setting, decision-making, motivating others, and tailoring communication to various situations

personality styles

will influence the way individuals cope in differennt situations

extrovert and introvert

Introverts

9 ndividuals who gain energy from solitude and introspection often prefer smaller groups or one-on-one conversations. They get their energy and emotion from within themselves.

• Prefer listening over speaking

• Think before speaking

• prefer written over verbal communication

Extroverts

Individuals who gain energy from social interactions and external timulation, often enjoying group settings and verbal communication. Get their energy and emotion from the world and people around them.

• Comfortable speaking in front of others

• Think out loud

• Thrive in group discussions and collaborative work

What challenges could arise when introverts and extroverts work together in a group project?

• Group may struggle to balance fast-paced discussion (preferred by extroverts) with time for reflection (preferred by introverts)

• Possible frustration from both sides about pace, process, or participation

• Extroverts may dominate conversations, making introverts feel unheard

• Introverts might hold back ideas, slowing collaboration or decision-making

Autocratic

A leadership style where the leader makes decisions independently, with little or no input from group members.

• Clear, directive communication

• Strict control over group activities

• Little delegation or collaboration

appropriate use of autocratic

• In emergencies or high-risk situations where fast decision-making is critical

• When tasks require strong direction or when group members lack experience

Strengths and weaknesses of autocratic

Strengths:

• Clear direction and quick decision-making

• Useful in emergencies or high-pressure situations

• Effective when tasks are routine or require strict compliance

Weaknesses:

• Discourages input from others

• Can lead to low motivation or resentment

• Doesn't build teamwork or creative thinking

Democratic

A participative style where the leader values input from group members and makes decisions collaboratively.

• collaborative- leader involves the people in decision making

• even if the leader makes the final decision, people in the group feel heard and are content that they were allowed to express their opinion

• Open communication

• Encourages team participation

• Promotes shared responsibility

Appropriate use of democratic

• In team-based environments

• When creativity, input and team satisfaction are important.

strengths and limitations of democratic

Strengths:

• Encourages collaboration and participation

• Boosts team morale and engagement

• Builds decision-making skills within the group

Weaknesses:

• Slower decision-making

• Can be inefficient in time-sensitive situations

• Risk of conflict if opinions differ strongly

Laissez-faire

A hands-off style where the leader provides minimal guidance and allows individuals to make decisions.

Characteristics:

• High autonomy for group members

• Leader acts as a resource rather than a director

• Can lead to innovation or confusion, depending on the group.

appropriate use Laissez-faire

• When team members are experienced, self-motivated and capable

• In research, design, or development roles

strengths and weaknesses of Laissez-faire

Strengths:

• Promotes independence and innovation

• Works well with highly skilled, self-motivated individuals

• Encourages creativity and personal responsibility

Weaknesses:

• Lack of structure can cause confusion

• Team members may feel unsupported

• Poor for teams needing guidance or motivation

Contemporary

means modern, current or happening now

Technology

in health refers to tools, techniques, or procedures used to support or improve health outcomes.

Ethics helps guide decisions that:

• Protect individuals’ rights

  • Promote fairness

  • Prevent harm

  • Respect cultural and social beliefs

Ethics

refers to a system of moral principles that influence behaviour and decision-making.

moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour or the conducting of an activity

key ethical principles

• Autonomy – respecting a person’s right to make decisions about their own health.

• Doing good and acting in the best interest of the patient.

• Justice – ensuring fairness and equal access to care.

• Doing no harm to self or others.

define Organ & Tissue Donation

Retrieving healthy organs and tissues from a donor (living or deceased) to transplant into another person to restore function or save lives.

arguments for Organ & Tissue Donation

arguments for

• saves lives and improves quality of life

• can offer meaning to a donor’s death

• opt-out systems increase donation

ethical considerations of organ and tissue donation

• Some see presumed consent as infringing on personal choice

• Inequities in transplant access (e.g. socio-economic bias)

• Risk of organ rejection or complications after transplant

arguments against organ & tissue donation

• Some see presumed consent as infringing on personal choice

• Inequities in transplant access (e.g. socio-economic bias)

• Risk of organ rejection or complications after transplant

define In-vitro fertilisation

IVF is a process where an egg is fertilised with sperm outside the body, with the resulting embryo implanted into the uterus.

arguments for In-vitro fertilisation

• Helps individuals/couples with infertility conceive.

• Enables same-sex couples and single parents to have children

• Preimplantation genetic diagnosis can reduce inherited diseases.

arguments against In-vitro fertilisation

• High cost and limited access create inequality

• Moral objection to discarding surplus embryos

• Higher risk of multiple births, premature birth, and low birth weight

• Concerns about "designer babies" and genetic manipulation

ethical considerations of In-vitro fertilisation

• Religious objections to artificial conception and embryo destruction.

• Cultural concerns over non-traditional family structures (e.g. single/same-sex parents).

• Moral debate over the status of unused embryos- definign initiation of life ethically

• Legal complexity in embryo ownership and posthumous reproduction.

• turning children into commodities

define Stem cells

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can develop into different cell types. They are used in medicine to repair or replace damaged tissue and treat diseases.

• can be sourced from embryos, umbilical cords, or adult tissue

arguments for Stem cells

• Potential to cure conditions like Parkinson’s, diabetes, and spinal injuries.

• Advances medical research and understanding of cell development

• Adult stem cell alternatives now widely available.

arguments against Stem cells

• Embryo use considered unethical by some groups

• Lack of long-term clinical trial data for many treatments

• Risk of tumour formation or rejection in stem cell therapies

• High cost and limited availability of treatment

ethical considerations for stem cells

• Destruction of human embryos raises moral concerns.

• Some religious groups believe life begins at conception.

• Debate over adult vs embryonic stem cells.

define Genetically Modified (GM) Foods

GM foods are produced from organisms whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering techniques to achieve desired traits.

arguments for Genetically Modified (GM) Foods

• Increases food yield and nutrition (e.g. Golden Rice with vitamin A).

• Enhances resistance to pests/disease, reducing pesticide use.

• May help address food insecurity in developing countries.

arguments against Genetically Modified (GM) Foods

• Cross-contamination risks for organic crops.

• Ethical concerns over profit-driven food production.

• Ethical concern about the long-term effects of consuming GM foods. Some argue it's unethical to promote GM products without conclusive safety data.

ethical considerations about Genetically Modified (GM) Foods

• Religious/cultural resistance to “tampering with nature.”

• Ethical concerns about unintended environmental consequences, such as the decline of non-GM species or harm to insects and wildlife.

• Moral concerns about patenting seeds and corporate control over food supply.

• Many people question whether it’s morally acceptable to alter the DNA of living organisms purely for human benefit. Critics argue GM technology favours wealthy companies over small-scale farmers.

• If GM foods aren’t clearly labelled, consumers are denied autonomy over their food choices.

Measures of Epidemiology

• mortality

• morbidity

• life expectancy

• incidence of disease

• prevalence of disease

• Burden of disease

mortality

• death

• number of people who have died in a population (mortality rate)

• or a large number of people who die due to a particular cause (mortality due to…)

infant mortality

• the death of babies and children

• can be measured under 1 year of age or under 5 years.

• the number of babies who die or the probortion of live births who dont survive in a population

  • does not include stillbirths

morbidity

• Sickness or illness

• can refer the the number of sick people of diseased in a population (morbidity rate)

• the number of unhealthy people

life expectancy

• how long, on average a person is expected to live, specific to population of origin or ethnic group

• the number of years a population group is expected to live is based on a statistical average of recent mortality rates

incidence of disease

• The number of new cases of a disease or condition in a specific place and time period.

• gives an indication of the risk of contracting a disease for an individual. This measure is used to track disease outbreak and spread.

• The number of new cases being diagnosed over a period of time

prevalence of disease

• The overall number of cases of a specific disease in a given population at a certain time.

• this measure gives an indication of the overall size of the health problem, how widespread it is, how many people are affected.

• number of people currenty diagnosed with a disease at a given time

Burden of disease

• The impact of diseases and injuries on a population's health

• Health loss to society due to disease or injury that remains after treatment, rehabilitation or prevention efforts.

emotional intelligence

ability of an individual to recognise their emotions, understand what they mean and how they affect the people around you

Why is Emotional Intelligence Important?

• Emotional intelligence helps manage stress and maintain good health by being aware of emotional states and reactions to stress.

• Emotional intelligence improves social awareness and social skills, leading to healthier and more fulfilling relationships.

• Higher emotional intelligence enhances self-motivation, reduces procrastination, and improves focus on goals, leading to greater success.

• Increased social awareness and well developed social skills will equip us to build healthier relationships.

Emotional intelligence competencies

• Self-awareness

• Self-Regulation

• Self-Motivation

• Social Awareness

• Social Skills

emotional awareness

recognising one’s emotions and their effects

National Strategic Framework for Chronic Conditions

The Framework guides national, state, and local decision-makers on how to reduce the impact of chronic conditions in Australia

• Rather than focusing on individual diseases, it takes a broader view, addressing shared risk factors, underlying causes, and overlapping health needs.

• This approach supports more effective prevention and management across multiple chronic conditions.