Baking and Pastry Mastering the Art

Whole grains vs Milled grains

Whole grains have not been milled, whereas milled grains are polished to remove the germ, bran, and hull, having a longer shelf life than whole grains. If the milling process continues, meals and cereals are the result. Even further processing and you have a fine powder (flour)

Milling process methods

Crushing the grains between metal rollers, grinding them between stones, or cutting them with steel blade. Milling separates the wheat kernel into its 3 parts: bran, endosperm, and germ.

Why is wheat flour the most preferable for baking?

Wheat flours are the only flours that contain enough gluten-forming proteins to provide the structure essential to baked goods

Parts of the wheat kernel

Bran - the dark outer coating of the wheat kernel and contains large amounts of insoluble fiber
Endosperm - contains the largest about of protein and starch; white flour is produced from the endosperm
Germ - the embryo of the wheat kernel 

Aging and bleaching flour

Newly milled flour needs to sit and age naturally for 2-3 months to allow the oxygen in the air to whiten the flour and develop the proteins. Chemicals are sometimes used to synthetically replicate the aging and whitening process via bleaching with oxides

Oxidizing flour

Potassium bromate, an oxidizing agent is added to flour to improve bread volume by 10-15%. Banned in some countries for health concerns. 

Doughs made from unbromated flours will require slightly more mixing to achieve the same strength. As you do not want to increase the final temperature of your dough through this additional mixing you must lower your initial water temperature

Enriched flour

Enriched flour has nutrients replaced that were lost during milling, such as thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, iron and calcium. Enrichment has no effect on baking performance.

All-purpose flour

A blend of hard and soft wheat flours milled from the endosperm of the wheat kernel. Southern all-purpose flour generally has more soft wheat than all-purpose flours in other parts of the United States. The protein content in all-purpose flour can range from 8-12%.

Bread flour (aka Patent flour)

a hard wheat flour made from the endosperm and is used for breads and soft rolls
protein content ranges from 11-13%

Hard vs Soft wheat

The main difference between hard and soft wheat is their protein content, which affects their suitability for different baked goods. Hard wheat has high protein (13-15%), ideal for making elastic gluten, and is used for chewy products like bread and bagels. Soft wheat has low protein (10-11%) and creates a tenderer result, making it perfect for cakes, pastries, and cookies

Cake flour

a soft wheat flour with a 6-9% protein content and is used for cakes and cookies

Clear flour

a hard wheat flour made from endosperm, having a darker color and is typically used in rye breads with a protein content of 13-15%

Durum flour

12-14% protein content; milled from the endosperm of the durum wheat kernel and is hard wheat flour used in bread

High-gluten flour

13-14% protein content and is milled from the entire endosperm and is used in bagels and hard rolls

Pastry flour

8-10% protein content; used in pie crust, muffins, and some biscuits as well as pastries

Semolina flour

coarsely ground durum wheat mostly used in pasta making

Whole wheat flour

milled from the entire wheat kernel including the bran and germ with a protein of 14-16%

Rye flour

behaves quite differently from wheat flour in baking

white rye flour is the mildest tasting with the lowest protein content (8-10%)

pumpernickel flour or rye meal is a coarse grind made from the entire kernel and has an intense flavor and dark color

Does oat flour contain any gluten?

No

Rolled oats (aka old-fashioned oats)

made by steaming and flattening oats

Instant oats

pre-cooked, dried, and rolled

Spelt grain

a cereal grain that contains less gluten and more protein than wheat

available for use as a whole grain or a white or whole-grain flour

Millet

a gluten-free seed with a mild flavor

Cornmeal

ground dried corn kernels

Rice flour

common in gluten-free baking

Turbinado sugar

coarse-grained partially refined (heavy processing to remove all other nutrients, leaving pure sugar (sucrose)) sugar with a light brown color and very mild molasses taste

Isomalt sugar

a white crystalline “sugar-free” sweetener made from sucrose, used in diabetic baking. Because it does not break down when heated and absorbs very little water, some pastry chefs like to use isomalt for pulled sugar work

Malt sugar

made from barley and corn and is used in some yeast breads

Golden syrup (aka light treacle syrup)

processed from sugar cane juice and can be used in place of corn syrup

Gelatine

a protein processed from the bones, skin, and connective tissue of animals and may be used as a thickener, gelling agent, stabilizer, emulsifier, or foaming agent

Pectin

a gelling agent that occurs naturally in many fruits, extracted from citrus or apple skins

Agar-agar

a gum derived from sea vegetables and is a stronger geller than gelatin but has a higher melting and gelling point, making it unsuitable for some uses

Cornstarch

ground from corn kernels and is used primarily as a thickener, but is also sometimes used in conjunction with wheat flour to yield softer results in baked goods

Milk fat percentage for whole, reduced and low fat milk

whole milk has at least 3% milk fat, reduced has 2% and low contains 1%

Heavy/whipping cream

at least 35% milk fat

light cream has less and does not whip easily, which is sometimes used instead of milk to add a richer flavor and creamier texture

Half and half

a mixture of half milk and half cream that contains 10-12% milk fat and cannot be whipped

Evaporated milk

a whole or fat free milk that has 60% of its water evaporated

Sour cream

cultured cream with 16-22% fat

Crème fraîche

made by adding acid to cream that has 30% milk fat, which then thickens the cream but does not ferment

high fat content gives it a velvety texture

Ricotta cheese

a cow’s milk cheese with a very mild flavor

can be drained to produce a drier, granier cheese

Flavor of high quality butter

a sweet flavor similar to fresh heavy cream

Grade AA butter has the best flavor, color, aroma, and texture. Grade A butter is also excellent quality

Egg grading

top grade is AA, indicating a very fresh egg

Functions of fats and oils in baked goods

tenderize, add flavor, heavy leavening strength, add moisture, and can create a flaky texture, among many other things

Storing oils and shortenings

placed away from hight and extreme heat

Vegetable oils

relatively high smoking points

Olive oils

vary in heaviness

cold-pressed is superior in flavor to thermally refined oil

finest olive oil available is extra-virgin olive oil, with a low level of acid (less than 1%)

Nut oils

more perishable than vegetable or olive oils and should be refrigerated

Hydrogenated shortenings

produced from liquid fats that have been chemically altered under pressure with purified hydrogen to make them solid at room temperature

Emulsifying shortening

a high-ratio shortening is a hydrogenated shortening that contains agents that better absorb and retain moisture in baked goods; used in recipes where the amount of sugar and liquids is proportionally greater than the flour

Margarine

a solid fat made with hydrogenated vegetable oils and milk, containing 80% fat

Lard

rendered pork fat that is hydrogenated to make it solid

Chocolate bloom

some of the cocoa butter has melted and then recrystallized on the sugar; safe to use

Couverture chocolate

high fat content makes it ideal for coating candy, pastries, and cakes

How is gluten formed?

Gluten is formed by the proteins present in wheat flour, giving strength to a batter or dough and acts to absorb the bulk of the moisture in most baked goods. As the flour takes up water, gluten strands begin to form, and to further develop these strands, making them more cohesive and elastic, the mixture is agitated (mixed)

Hydration of a dough or batter

liquid provides the moisture necessary for hydration of the ingredients, aiding in the development of the gluten in the flour, in gelatinization of starches, and in dissolving other ingredients for even distribution and consistency.

Rubbed aka cut-in doughs

developed by rubbing cold fat and flour, leaving flakes of fat visible (like when making biscuits)

flaky rubbed dough has larger flakes of fat before the liquid is added, resulting in a flakier and crisper baked crust (about the size of walnut halves) 

• best for pies, tarts, and other preparations where the filing is baked in the crust, not where the crust is pre-baked and allowed to cool and then a liquid filling is added that must set in fridge. After baking, the pockets that lend the flaky texture easily allows juices/liquids to leak from the crust

mealy crust is more suited for where the flaky crust isn’t. the butter/shortening is more coarse in the flour and results in a finer texture as the fat is more evenly interspersed in the flour, shortening gluten strands to make a more tender crust

• suited for all types of pies and tarts, but most particularly for formulas that require a fully baked shell with a pre-cooked filling such as cream. Also suited for creating decorative tops such as lattice

Achieving a more flaky crust with rubbed doughs

always keeping rubbed doughs cool during mixing to best achieve a flakier crust

The basic steps for making rubbed doughs

1. combing dry ingredients, using pastry or AP flour (cake flour has too much starch which will absorb more water and make a pasty consistency)

2. rub the firm fat into the flour

3. add the cold liquid and mix together quickly but thoroughly. water most commonly used, but milk/cream may also be used (adjust the amount of butter to balance out the extra fat from the milk/cream)

4. turn out the dough onto a lightly floured surface and gather and press together into a disk or rectangle

5. tightly wrap dough in plastic wrap and chill in fridge to firm enough to work with, ensuring the fat does not become too soft nor the flour overworked. Soft fat prevents the separation of the baked dough into layers, and overworked flour can result in a tough, rather than tender, baked good

Short dough

contains a high fat %, resulting in a very tender and crumbly crust, but will become tough if overworked

cake and pastry flour is often used and contain eggs and sometimes sugar

Basic steps to make a short dough

1. mix sugar and butter into a paste but not too much so that air incorporates

2. add eggs gradually, and ensure they are room temperature to avoid curdling or breaking and blend them carefully

3. add dry ingredients and mix at a low speed until just combined

4. turn out the dough onto a lightly floured surface and shape into disk or rectangle and wrap tightly and refrigerate for at least an hour

Crumb crusts

2 typical uses: pudding or cream pie and cheesecake

graham crackers most commonly used

Par-baking vs Blind baking

a par-baked crust is partially baked before filling is added, while a blind baked crust is fully baked and used for wet batters. Par-baking is used when the filling needs less time in the oven than the crust, while blind baking is for fillings that don't require any baking at all. 

What happens if you bake wet pie filling along with the crust and don’t bake the crust ahead of time?

if you add the filling to raw dough the starch molecules in the flour will swell and trap the water, preventing it from evaporating

When to cook raw pie dough with raw filling together?

Best for fruit fillings like apple, where there is a longer overall cooking time and the juices released from the fruit slowly as they bake, giving the crust time to bake before absorbing the liquid