Philosophy: Historical Eras, Key Thinkers, and Core Concepts

Pre-Philosophical Era (before 600 B.C)

Characterized by Supernaturalism & Unsystematic, even irrational or superstitious thinking

Ancient Philosophy - 600 B.C. - 400 AD

Basically Greek & Roman Philosophy

Medieval Philosophy - 400 AD - 1400 AD

Primarily Christian Philosophy in Europe

Modern Philosophy - 1400 AD - 1900AD

Primarily influenced by Science & a return to Ancient Philosophical Thinking

Contemporary Philosophy - 1900AD -Today

Diverse approaches and global perspectives

What is philosophy?

Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and language.

How do we use the word philosophy casually (despite not being aware of it as a subject)?

We often use "philosophy" casually to mean someone's guiding principles or beliefs.

5 branches of philosophy

Metaphysics

Epistemology

Ethics

Logic

Aesthetics

three reasons to study philosophy

Develop critical thinking, understand foundational ideas, and clarify values.

Euthyphro Dialogue

explores the nature of piety and morality

Socrates vs Euthyphro in representation in Euthyphro Dialogue

Socrates: Represents questioning and critical thinking

Euthyphro: represents conventional wisdom

Euthyphro Dilemma

is something good because the gods commands it, or do the gods command it.

Wrong ways of defining the Euthyphro

its either too narrow, too broad, or too circular.

Who were the sophists and what did they believe in.

Traveling teachers who taught rhetoric and skepticism.

Difference between older (Protagoras) and younger sophists (Thrasymachus)

Protagoras (older): "Man is the measure of all things" truth is relative.

Thrasymachus (younger): More cynical, justice as the interest of the stronger

Skepticism

Doubt about the possibility of certain knowledge.

How does Skepticism relate to the sophists

Sophists questioned the possibility of absolute truth, teaching that knowledge and morality are relative and subjective.

What did Protagoras mean by "Man is the measure of all things?

Protagoras meant that truth and reality are determined by individual perception, so what is true or real depends on each person's viewpoint.

What was Socrates charged with?

corrupting the youth and impiety

How did these charges relate to him being accused of being a 'Natural Philosopher' and a 'Sophist'?

both natural philosophers and sophists were seen as questioning traditional beliefs and corrupting the youth by undermining established religious and moral values.

What did Socrates mean by saying he was a 'gadfly'

Just as a gadfly constantly agitates a horse, preventing it from becoming sluggish and going to sleep so too Socrates, by (moving through the City) stirring up conversations in the marketplace

Socrates innovations

Socratic method of questioning, focusing on definitions, pursuit of virtue and clear knowledge.

Effect of Socrates death

Motivated Plato to deepen philosophical inquiry and preserve Socratic thought.

Plato

(430-347 BCE) Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection.

What is Thrasymachus definition of justice?

Justice is what serves the interest of the stronger; often manipulated by those in power.

How does Thrasymachus say we view justice and incorporate it in our lives.

we view justice as following the laws and rules set by the ruling authorities, and we incorporate it in our lives by obeying these rules to avoid punishment.

what were the traditional Greek views

Soul: Immortal, seat of reason.

Virtue: Excellence/arete.

Ethics: Concerned with living rightly.

What is the importance of the myth of Gyges' Ring in Plato's Republic?

it allowed him to explore if justice is valued for its own sake.

Plato's view of the tyrant

The tyrant is the most unjust person, ruled by uncontrolled desires and appetites.

How is the tyrant characterized

Plato characterizes the tyrant as miserable and enslaved by passions, lacking self-control.

How does this relate to morality and virtue?

Plato argues that injustice leads to inner chaos and unhappiness, while virtue brings harmony and true happiness.

How can Aristotle and his philosophy best be characterized?

Aristotle is empirical and systematic. He believes everything has a purpose (telos) and emphasizes living according to reason.

Did Aristotle think anyone could achieve true happiness?

Aristotle thought true happiness requires virtue, reason, and some external goods, so not everyone can achieve it equally.

Aristotle's definition of happiness

Happiness (eudaimonia) is living in accordance with reason and fulfilling one's function as a human.

Aristotle's 'function argument' for morality?

argues that the good for humans is to reason well, since reason is our unique function.

What did Aristotle think were the 3 most favored types of lives?

ife of Gratification (pleasure)

Life of Political Activity (honor)

Life of Study/Learning (contemplation)

Why did the three lives fail to be the type of lives we should aim at?

The first two fall short because they depend on external factors or are not fully rational.

role of 'habit' in Aristotle's ethics

Virtue is developed through practice and habituation; good habits form good character.

What are virtues, for Aristotle?

Virtues are states of character involving rational choice, aiming at the mean between extremes

What is the golden mean?

the desirable middle between excess and deficiency in traits or actions.

Examples of choosing 'the mean' in the face of vice:

Courage is the mean between recklessness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency).

What did the social/political climate look like during Hellenistic times?

It was marked by political instability, uncertainty, and the decline of city-states, leading people to seek personal tranquility.

How did Post-Aristotelian ethics differ from Aristotle's?

They focused more on personal tranquility and minimizing pain, rather than fulfilling a social or rational function.

Epicurus say the two greatest fears of man are?

Fear of gods and fear of death.

Would Epicurus have subscribed to the view "Eat, Drink, and be Merry"?

No; Epicurus advocated for simple pleasures and moderation, not indulgence.

hat was the ideal life like for Epicurus? What would it consist of?

A simple, moderate life free from pain and fear, focused on friendship and philosophical reflection.

Why did Epicurus say that happiness was like "digestion"?

Happiness is a steady, ongoing state, not a momentary pleasure—like the continuous process of digestion.

Name and describe three types of pleasures

Natural and necessary (e.g., food, shelter)

Natural but unnecessary (e.g., luxury foods)

Neither natural nor necessary (e.g., fame)

Stoicism

Who were the two Roman stoics that demonstrated the philosophy's popularity?

Epictetus (a slave) and Marcus Aurelius (Roman Emperor).

what does it mean that the Stoics valued "apathia"?

Apathia means freedom from destructive emotions; it's rational control, not indifference.

How does the ideal Stoic act?

according to reason, accepts fate, and focuses on what can be controlled.

How can the Stoics be seen as getting closer toward a purely religious ethics?

Stoicism moves toward a universal, rational order (logos), resembling religious ethics by emphasizing duty and acceptance of a cosmic order.

For Kant, what is the only thing that is purely good?

Good will—acting from duty for its own sake.

How does Kant's concept of Duty differ from 'following orders from others'?

Duty is self-imposed by reason, not just following commands; it's about acting from moral law.

What are two essential features of morality for Kant?

Universality (applies to all) and necessity (must be followed).

What is the difference between a categorical imperative vs. a hypothetical imperative?

Categorical: Applies unconditionally ("Do X").

Hypothetical: Applies if you want a certain result ("If you want Y, do X").

How does one apply the 'categorical imperative', for Kant?

Act only on maxims you can will to be universal laws.

For Kant is the goal of morality happiness?

No; the goal is acting from duty, not happiness.

What is the main principle or motto of Utilitarianism?

Greatest happiness for the greatest number.

How does Mill answer the criticism that Utilitarianism is a morality fit for swine?

Mill argues humans have higher pleasures (intellectual, moral) as well as lower (bodily), so utilitarianism values more than just animal pleasure.

What are some other criticisms of Utilitarianism?

Criticisms include difficulty measuring happiness and potential to justify injustice.

How does Mill answer these?

Mill responds by emphasizing quality of pleasures and the importance of rules to prevent injustice.