pe - unit 4 aos 2

11.2 - design, implementation + evaluation of training programs

• the ultimate purpose of a training program is to achieve the specific chronic adaptations an athlete requires for them to maximise their performance in their sport.

  1. activity analysis - data is collected + analysed to determine the physiologcial requirements of a sport, including the relevant energy systems, fitness components and major muscle groups.

  2. fitness testing - after activity analysis, you have knowledge of the sport to choose relevant fitness tests. these tests should be valid + reliable, accurately highlighting the strengths + weaknesses of individual athletes in terms of fitness components. the coach can then prioritise areas to focus training on. test protocols must also be followed.

  3. design - now knowing which fitness components are to be developed or maintained, a training program is designed. the correct training method must be chosen, and training principals, components of a training program, etc should be considered

  4. monitoring + evaluating - the program must be frequently evaluated and monitored accurately. this can be through the use of training diaries, digital tools and wearable technologies. this helps the coach to make informed decisions regarding the effectiveness of the program.

11.4 - monitoring + evaluating

• the training program should be monitored by frequently collecting physiological, psychological and sociological training data. this should be evaluated to determine the effectiveness of the program, so coaches can make informed decisions, modifying the program if necessary. also so athletes’ can track their progress + have motivation.

  • physiological - data of the physiological response of the body during and after training. ex, HR, numerical data for fitness components

  • psychological - provides data of the athlete’s thoughts, feelings and cognitive characteristics that can impact their mental readiness + mental capacity to train, and therefore their performance. ex, how are you feeling today?

  • sociological - provides context surrounding social, cultural, environmental factors that can shape the athletes’ participation or performance.

• can be monitored through training diaries, digital tools and wearable technologies.

• benefits of monitoring

  • physiological - evaluate effectiveness, signs of overtraining

  • psycholgoica - motivation, goal setting

  • sociological - communication, accountability

11.3 - structure of a training session

1. warmup

2. conditioning phase

3. cool down

11.3 - 1) warmup

• warmup - a warmup allows the athlete to gradually adjust, both physically and mentally, to the demands of the conditioning phase / get mind + body prepared. the more prepared your body is, the less likely injury is to occur.

• physically helps body prepare for exercise by:

  • increasing physiological responses - heart rate, respiration rate → decrease the oxygen deficit at the start of conditioning phase → less reliance on anaerobic systems at the start + therefore less metabolic by-products and quicker to reach steady state

  • increased blood flow to working muscles

  • → increasing muscle temperature + core body temperature → reduced risk of injury

  • loosening up joints + muscles → increased range of motion → reduced risk of injury (decreasing joint fluid viscosity + increasing elasticity of muscles)

• stages of a warmup

1. cardio

   • low-moderate intensity aerobic exercise, gradually increasing in intensity. (50-60% MHR) ex, walking or jogging, should be specific to intensity of activity. (5-10 minutes)

2. dynamic stretching

   • dynamic stretching, focusing on key muscle groups used. ex, leg swings, lunge + twist, arm swings. (5-10 mins)

3. sport/activity specific

   • sport/activity specific activities that replicate the movements required + use sport specific skills. gradually increase intensity to meet intensity of conditioning phase. ex, netball run throughs. (5-10 mins)

*conditioning phase should start less than 15 minutes after warmup is commenced

11.3 - 2) conditioning phase

• conditioning phase - main part of the session, where fitness components or skills are developed.

  • skill development - includes activities designed to develop + practise skills, game plans, tactics and strategies

  • fitness conditioning - the development or maintenance of specific fitness components, identified in fitness testing. the correct training method must be used, and duration, intensity, type and frequency must be addressed.

  • if skill development is first, athletes are less fatigued and more focused, however, coaches may want athletes to practise skills while fatigued as they would be during a game.

11.3 - 3) cool down

• cool down - a cool down aims to return the body to pre-exercise levels. this includes: + faster recovery

  • reversing the effects of fatigue by removing metabolic by-products from the working muscles while maintaining blood circulation

  • reducing the effects of delayed-onset-muscular-soreness (DOMS) from the accumulation of lactic acid (H+ ions)

  • gradually reducing heart rate, respiration rate and body temperature

  • preventing venous pooling - after exercise, blood may pool in the veins, especially in the lower limbs where gravity is the strongest. venous pooling results in a decreased venous return to the heart, so less blood is reoxygenated and less metabolic by-products can be removed.

• a cooldown can include:

  • active recovery - performing the same movement patterns at a reduced intensity. muscles continue working and heart rate + blood flow remain elevated.

    • → blood is pushed back to the heart, thus preventing venous pooling.

    • → elevated blood flow = faster removal of metabolic by-products + more oxygen delivered to muscles

  • static stretching - static stretching drains lactic acid (H+ ions), reducing DOMS (soreness) + returns contracted muscles to pre-exercise lengths, reducing muscle stiffness. also improves flexibility.

    • stretching can also be done with resistance bands. they are cost effective and provide variety.

  • foam roller - foam rolling physically squeezes blood back up veins, preventing venous pooling. rolling should be mainly done on the lower body.

• (10-20 mins, but in proportion to exercise)

fitness testing

• fitness testing - after activity analysis, fitness testing is conducted to determine the athlete’s strengths and weaknesses in the major fitness components important to the sport, so the training program can be more specific to the individual, and therefore more successful.

• additional purposes

  • if testing is ongoing, monitor the progress and effectiveness of the training program → driving modifications

  • establish a baseline for future testing + setting realistic, specific goals

  • motivate athletes - results of testing may provide motivation for athletes to improve, particularly if testing is ongoing (however this should not be earlier than 6 weeks, to allow for chronic adaptations to occur)

  • determining team positions - ex. assigning most aerobic player to be midfielder

• prior to and during fitness testing, steps should be taken to ensure safety and willingness of participants, and that results are valid, reliable and accurate

health screening

• health screening helps to determine if an individual’s physical health + wellbeing is adequate for both fitness testing + the training program, ensuring readiness/safety.

  • PAR-Q - a screening tool that helps identify any existing health risks or family history of cardiovascular risk of the participant, to ensure that fitness tests are suitable for the participant, and don’t pose any risk.

informed consent

• informed consent - informs participants of test procedures, associated risks and their right to withdraw at any time. this is so they can make an informed decision about whether they participate, ensuring willingness.

must include

• test procedures

• associated risks

• withdrawal rights

• ensure participant is 18 or over or has informed consent from parents

pre-assessment considerations

• before conducting any fitness testing, there are several factors that should be taken into consideration:

  • physiological considerations

    • fitness + skill levels of participants

    • current training schedule (will the testing process disrupt their training/games?)

    • health conditions (through health screening)

  • psychological considerations

    • motivation, purpose + confidence levels of participants

    • sensitivity of the participants - group testing, sharing results

  • sociocultural considerations

    • financial costs of testing

    • access to equipment and facilities

    • catering for participants with disabilities

    • cultural beliefs ex, mixed gender testing

selecting fitness tests

• when selecting fitness tests, it is important to consider both specificity and result comparison

• specificity - tests should replicate the requirements of the activity, as identified in the activity analysis, (ex, in terms of distance, duration, movement patterns and directions), to ensure test is specific to the activity.

• result comparison - test results can be normative based, comparing to other people. or the results can be criterion based, comparing to acceptable parameters for improved health.

test protocols

• reliability - the test is able to be replicated with consistency → allows for fair and accurate comparison of results to norms + other test results

  • when selecting the fitness test, it is best to choose one that produces consistent results even when the environment is changed. however;

  • during repeated tests, reliability can be increased in a number of ways:

    • same sequence of tests

    • same time of day

    • under same environmental conditions - more specifically weather, surface

    • same warmup

    • same nutritional/hydration state

• validity - the test measures what it claims to be measuring.

  • when selecting the fitness test, ensure it tests the correct fitness component/aspect of fitness component. ex, to test aerobic power, the test must be long enough to test the capacity of this energy system, for the test to be valid.

• accuracy - the test produces correct results. to increase:

  • the procedure is strictly adhered to

  • calibrating equipment

  • using specialised technology

types of fitness testing

• laboratory testing - proper, expensive equipment + takes a lot of time → yields more accurate + reliable results.

• field testing - can be partially reliable + partially accurate. tends to give indirect results.

• maximal testing - performed until exhaustion, until fatiguing factors force them to stop → relatively short, uses ATP-PC or anaerobic systems. ex, VO₂ test.

• sub maximal tests - not performed to exhaustion, ex, PWC₁₇₀ test.

• direct testing - directly measures the function of a fitness component, usually through laboratory testing.

• indirect testing - compares with population normative data to estimate fitness levels.

aerobic power

Cooper’s 12 minute run (indirect)

• procedure - set a boundary around a 400m track (limit corners/sharp turns). set a count down timer for 12 minutes. count how many 400-metre laps the participant can complete in 12 minutes, including distance of any partial laps.

• collecting data - can be measured by counting, or using digital devices (ex. garmin)

• compare against data, giving you an estimate value of your VO₂ max

• special considerations

  • health screening + informed consent → check for any cardiovascular risks

  • ensure participants have appropriate clothing + footwear to keep them safe while participating + access to hydration

  • ensure environment is safe and is able to be reproduced for post-testing (ex, same temperature of day)

20m multi-stage test

• maximal test

• can be converted to a VO2 max using an eqaution based on population normative data

anaerobic capacity

muscular strength

1 RM test - direct

• procedure - to perform the 1 RM test, the participant must first warmup using lower weights. when attempting the 1 RM, the participant must wait 3-5 minutes between attempts, allowing for PC stores to be fully restored. the weight must be added gradually, with an increase between 2-10% each time. the 1 RM is the highest weight that can be performed with correct technique. this data can then be analysed by dividing it by the participant’s weight, and comparing it to a table.

muscular power

vertical jump test

broad jump test

muscular endurance

speed

agility

flexibility

training principles + special considerations

• training princiapls

  • specificity

  • type

  • intensity

  • frequency

  • duration

  • individuality

  • variety

• special considerations

  • progression

  • diminishing returns

  • overtraining

  • detraining

  • maintenance

specificity

• specificity - replicating the characteristics of the sport during training to ensure it benefits performance. the program must target specific energy systems, fitness components, muscle groups + movements of sport.

type

• type - what the individual is doing within their training program. specificity is applied to choose relevant type of training method, activity or exercise

intensity

• the level of exertion applied during the work phase of a training session. intensity can be measured in several ways:

  • % max heart rate

  • % RELATIVE VO2 max

  • rate of percieved exertion

  • accelerometers/GPS tracking systems

• training zones

frequency

• frequency - the number of training sessions conducted in a week.

• to improve a specific fitness component, training must occur at least three times per week. (3-5 for aerobic, 3 for anaerobic).

• rest and recovery are also improtant considerations in frequency.

• as performers become accustomed to their training program, frequency may be increased as a way of progression.

duration

• time can be referred to in many ways, need to know context

• duration of the training program - the minimum time for which the program needs to be performed before chronic adaptations are evident

• duration of a training session

  • aerobic - at least 20 minutes

  • anaerobic - 20-60 minutes, depending on type

• duration of an exercise within a training session

• periodisation - organising training sessions (per week or per season) into manageable blocks or periods of time

  • weekly - preparation | competition | transition

  • season - off-season | pre-season | season

individuality

• individuals respond to a similar training program in different ways. you must individualise the program, considering:

• genetic predisposition - fitness make-up ex, proportion of slow twitch fibres to fast twitch fibres

• initial fitness levels/trtaining status

• preparedness - returning from injury, understanding of how to complete training program

• adaptive responses - everyone’s body adapts to a training program differently.

• preferences + what motivates them

variety

• variety must be incorporated into training programs to keep motivation. but specificity should always still apply.

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progression

• in a training program, an increased workload is placed on the body, and the body develops adaptations to better respond. to continue progression, the workload must be increased again through progressive overload.

• when progessivbely overloading a fitness component, only one variable can be changed at a time - ex, frequency, intensity or duration. overload shouldn’t happen more than once in a fortnight, and it should not be more than 2-10% of the previous load at a time. too fast overload may result in overtraining and performance setbacks, or injury.

diminishing returns

• an untrained performer will show greater initial improvements. as a performer gets closer to their ultimate potential, the rate of improvement slows down significantly.

• the more you train, the higher your performance gets, but the slower your rate of improvement gets / smaller gains. in some fitness components such as muscular strength, you can reach your genetic potential ‘hit your ceiling’

overtraining

• when the performer does not recover from continual exercise over a long period of time, can result in overtraining.

• overtraining can be counterproductive in a training program, because positive chronic adaptations can occur during rest (especially for muscle hypertrophy), also can lead to injury.

• to prevent overtraining, the program must include appropriate recovery periods

• symptoms of overtraining

  • persistent heavy, stiff and sore muscles

  • persistent fatigue, washed-out feeling

  • decrease in performance

  • increased susceptibility to infections, colds, headaches

  • chronic injuries that are persistent

  • sleep disturbances

  • decreased mental concentration and restlessness

  • increased irritability

detraining

• reversibility. at the end of a training program, the performer begins to return to pre-training levels. most evident when someone injures themself.

frequency?

• to maintain a fitness component, it must be trained at least 2x per week

• to improve a fitness component, it must be trained at least 3x per week (still must hit appropriate intensity and duration)

tapering

• tapering involves reducing the training volume (either frequency in a week or in a session) in the leadup to competition. this reduces accumulated fatigue, meaning the athlete has less muscle soreness before the competition. + allows energy stores to be replenished, allowing for peak performance.

training methods

aerobic training methods

• continuous

• long interval

• fartlek

• HIIT

• circuit

anaerobic training methods

• medium-interval

• short-interval

• weight/resistance

• plyometrics

• circuit

flexibility

• static stretching

• dynamic stretching

• PNF stretching

aerobic - continuous

• involves a continuous activity such as jogging, rowing or cycling

• intensity - 70-85% MHR

• duration - at least 20 minutes

• frequency -

• progression - overloading can occur by increasing duration, distance, intensity, terrain

aerobic - fartlek

• fartlek training involves continuous exercise with random bursts of speed. it mainly develops aerobic power, but the bursts develop speed and anaerobic capacity.

• ex, 50m jog 10m run x 6

• duration - at least 20 minutes

• intensity - 70-75% / 80-85%

aerobic - HIIT

• high intensity interval training involves periods of short, high intensity work followed by periods of lower intensity recovery. despite high itnensity, improves aerobic power

• rest periods - active recovery

• intensity - 95-100% MHR

interval training

• interval training alternates higher intensity work periods with rest or reduced intensity activity. Work and rest periods, as well as intensity, can be manipulated to develop any of the three energy systems.

aerobic - long interval

• work periods are generally 1 minute or longer, with a W:R ratio of 1:1

anaerobic - intermediate/medium interval

• work periods are generally 15-60 seconds, with a W:R ratio of 1:2 or 1:3

• intensity - above 85% MHR

anaerobic - short interval

• work period under 10 seconds, with a W:R ratio of at least 1:5. this is to ensure the ATP-PC system is dominant. training primarily develops speed. passive recovery.

• intensity - above 85% MHR, preferably 95-100%. RPE 9-10

anaerobic - resistance training

• incorporates applying a resistance to a muscle/muscle group. most common is weight training, but bodyweight and bands can also be used. improves muscular strength. correct technoque should be used, and larger groups should be trained before smaller ones.

muscular strength

• 3-5 sets of 3-6 reps

• intensity - 90% 1RM

• duration

• rest periods - 2-3 minutes

muscular endurance

• 1-3 sets of 10-15 reps

muscular power

anaerobic - plyometrics

• ex, clap push ups, medicine ball throws, box jumps, bounding + skipping

aerobic + anaerobic - circuit training

• Circuit training is a sequenced performance of exercises at different activity stations (usually from 8-12). Completing each exercise in the circuit once is a lap. Two or three laps are usually performed in a circuit. Circuit training is beneficial where the goal is to improve multiple fitness components.

• can be fixed time, fixed load

flexibility training

• dynamic stretching - joint is moved through its range of motion with controlled momentum

• static stretching - stretches muscle to a fixed position and holds for at least 10 seconds.

• PNF stretching - with assistance, holding a stretch, and isometrically contracting the muscle. relaxing, and then stretching slightly further next time.

training methods

• aerobic system dominant - continuous, fartlek, long interval

• anaerobic system dominant - short interval, medium interval, plyometrics

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intensity

• aerobic - 70-85% MHR, or RPE (rate of percieved exhaustion) 3-6

• anaerobic - above 85% MHR, or 8 RPE

training methods - muscular strength

methods

• resistance training

• circuit training incorporating strength stations

training principles

• 3-5 sets of 3-6 reps

• intensity - 85-95% 1RM

• frequency - 2-3 sessions per week

• time - 20-60 minutes

• type - long intervals, fartlek, resistance training

• progression - increase one variable by 2-10% every 2 weeks

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