AP Psych notes pt. 3 (Unit 2)

Selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

ex; we may think we can fully attend to a conversation or a class lecture while checking and answering texts, but our consciousness focuses on one thing at a time.

Inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

ex; You’re searching for your phone on your desk but fail to see it right in front of you because you’re focused on looking through papers.

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in environment; a form of inattentional blindness

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

ex; If you hear someone say "It's cold," but they’re standing near a refrigerator, you might assume they’re referring to the temperature of the fridge, not the weather.

Cocktail party effect

phenomenon where you can focus your attention on a specific conversation or sound in a noisy environment, like a crowded party, while filtering out other background noise.

ex; A student sitting in the back of a noisy lecture hall can focus on the professor's voice, filtering out the chatter of other students.

Gestalt

An organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

ex; the words on my notes are the figure, while the grey space is the ground

Grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. the three principles of grouping are proximity, similarity, and closure.

ex; A flock of birds flying in one direction is perceived as a single group

depth perception

the ability to see objects in 3 dimensions and judge distance

ex; Catching a Ball: You estimate the distance and trajectory of the ball to catch it.

Visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

ex; Imagine putting a baby on a glass floor above a deep pit (with safety ensured). Even though the baby can't fall through, they might hesitate or refuse to crawl forward because the "drop" looks real.

Binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of both eyes.

Convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images.

ex; Hold your finger close to your nose and focus on it. You’ll feel your eyes crossing as they converge to focus on the finger.

Retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from both eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

ex; When you focus on something far away, like a tree on the horizon, the disparity between the images in each eye is smaller compared to closer objects, signaling the tree’s greater distance.

Monocular cue

depth cues available to each eye separately.

examples:

relative clarity: because more light passes through objects that are further away, we perceive these objects as hazy, blurry, or unclear. Nearby objects, however, appear sharp and clear.

relative size: if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal images as farther away.

texture gradient: moving toward or away from an object changes our perception of its texture. When a wall is viewed from a distance, we will perceive it as smooth. Viewing the same wall up close will reveal greater texture and detail.

linear perspective: comes from our familiarity with parallel lines in our visual environment, like those of streets, side-walks, buildings, and rivers. We know that parallel lines appear to converge with distance, so we use them to judge depth. The sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance is.

interposition: if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer.

Stroboscopic movement

an illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying sill images

ex; motion picture or flip book animation

Phi Phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on an off in quick succession.

ex; Christmas Lights:

• When lights blink on and off along a string of Christmas lights, you might perceive the lights as "moving" from one end to the other, even though each light is just flashing in place.

Autokinetic effect

the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room.

ex; Watching the Stars:

• When you're lying outside, staring at a star or any other distant light in the sky, it might seem to move in one direction or another over time. This occurs because of the autokinetic effect, especially in areas with no other points of reference, making it feel like the star is drifting.

Perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (changing color, brightness, shape, and size) eve as illumination and retinal images change.

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

ex; looking at an apple in good lighting versus looking at one with shadow over it and knowing that the apple is still the same red color and not a darker or brighter shade of red.

Shape constanct

When we perceive an object as having an unchanging size, even if our retinal images from it varies.

ex; my window vs the window of an apt down the street from me. I know that they are all the same size even if my retinal image of the window varies in distance.

Brightness constancy

when we perceive an object as having a constant brightness even as its relative luminance- the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings- changes

ex; A person wearing a brightly colored shirt may look the same in different lighting, such as in a room with both bright overhead lights and dimly lit surroundings. Your brain compensates for the change in lighting to keep the perceived brightness of the shirt constant.

perceptual adaption

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.

ex; In an experiment, people were asked to wear glasses that flipped their visual field upside down. At first, everything appeared disoriented (e.g., walking seemed awkward, and objects looked inverted), but over time, people became able to navigate and interact with their environment as though nothing had changed. After prolonged use, they adapted to the inverted visual input.

Metacognition

cognition about our cognition (thinking about thinking); keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.

ex; thinking about how crazy I am

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

ex; Concept of "Fruit":

• The concept of "fruit" might include characteristics like being sweet or sour, coming from a plant, and containing seeds. Apples, oranges, and bananas all fit within this category, even though each fruit has unique features. Your brain uses the concept of "fruit" to quickly identify a wide range of edible plant parts.

prototype

a mental image or best examples of a category. matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories.

ex; The prototype for the category "fruit" might be an apple. When people think of a fruit, they often picture something sweet, round, and easily eaten raw. While bananas, grapes, and oranges are also fruits, they might not fit the apple prototype, best example, as closely.

Schema

a concept or framework that organized and interprets information.

ex; School Schema:

• You might have a schema for what a typical school day looks like: walking into a classroom, sitting at a desk, listening to the teacher, and taking notes. If a classroom experience deviates from this, such as an interactive or outdoor learning environment, your schema might shift to incorporate these new learning experiences.

Assimilation

interpreting our new experienced in terms of our existing schema''s.

• Example:

  • Scenario: A child who has a schema for "dog" as a small, furry animal might encounter a large dog for the first time.

  • Assimilation Process: The child would still call the large dog a "dog" because the new information fits into their existing schema of what a dog is. They are using their current schema (small furry dog) to interpret the new dog (large furry dog) without changing the structure of their schema.

Accommodation

adapting our current schema’s (understandings) to incorporate new information.

• Example:

  • Scenario: The same child who previously thought all dogs are small and furry encounters a large dog for the first time and realizes it doesn't fit their existing schema of "dog."

  • Accommodation Process: The child may adjust their schema for "dog" to include the idea that dogs can be large or small, and perhaps even differ in other ways (e.g., different breeds). The child's schema of "dog" is changed to accommodate the new information.

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

ex; elimination method on multiple choice

Divergent and Convergent thinking

Convergent thinking:

• Example 1: Math Problem:

  • You are asked to solve a simple math problem: "What is 7 + 5?" The solution is straightforward, and there is only one correct answer: 12. This requires convergent thinking because you focus on finding that single correct solution.

• Example 2: Multiple Choice Test:

  • In a multiple-choice exam, you are given a question and a set of answers. You use convergent thinking to analyze each option and choose the one that best fits, focusing on finding the correct answer from the given choices.

Divergent thinking:

• Example 1: Brainstorming Ideas:

  • If you're asked, "What are some uses for a paperclip?" divergent thinking would prompt you to come up with many different uses (e.g., a bookmark, a hairpin, a tool to reset electronics, a miniature sculpture, a hook for hanging things, etc.). There are many possible answers, and no single correct one.

• Example 2: Creative Writing:

  • Writing a story or creating a poem often requires divergent thinking. You can explore many themes, characters, settings, and plots, creating a variety of different possibilities for how the story might unfold, with no single "right" answer.

Functional fixedness

occurs when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions.

Executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior.

high-level cognitive abilities

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy- a mental shortcut- that often allows us to make judgement’s and solve problems efficiently usually speedier but more error-prone than an algorithm

Insight

“Aha!”-moment

ex; Math Problem:

• Scenario: You're stuck on a complex algebraic equation. You've tried several approaches but haven't made any progress.

• Insight Moment: After walking away from the problem for a bit, you suddenly realize the solution involves factoring the equation differently or recognizing a pattern that you missed earlier. This sudden realization allows you to solve the problem quickly.

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem thinking

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

ex; player 456 in red light green light….

• Scenario: You are given a matchstick puzzle where you have to rearrange matchsticks to form a certain shape, such as a square or triangle.

• Mental Set: If you previously solved matchstick puzzles by simply moving matchsticks around the edges to form shapes, you might stick to this strategy even though a more effective solution might require breaking the pattern or using a matchstick in a way you haven’t considered before.

• Example of Mental Set Limiting Solutions: You keep trying to form the shapes within the confines of the current arrangement, not considering that a different approach (like moving the matchsticks in non-traditional ways) might lead to the solution.

Representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

ex;

• Scenario: You see someone wearing formal clothes and carrying a briefcase. You might assume that they are a business executive or lawyer, even though they could be a student or a tourist.

• Explanation: You are relying on the representative heuristic by matching their appearance to a typical stereotype of a business professional, even though other possibilities exist.

Availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (maybe because of their vividness), we persume such events are common.

ex;

• Scenario: If you frequently watch news stories about violent crimes in your area, you may come to believe that the crime rate is higher than it really is. This is because you’re more likely to remember sensationalized reports of crime, even if they are relatively rare.

• Explanation: The availability heuristic leads you to overestimate the prevalence of crime based on how easily examples of violent crimes come to mind.

encoding

the process of getting info into memory system

ex, extracting meaning

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory info, and (2) info retrieved from long term memory

ex;

• Mental Math:

  • Scenario: You are adding 38 + 47 in your head.

  • Working Memory: You temporarily hold the numbers 38 and 47 in your mind, perform the calculation (38 + 47 = 85), and then remember the result to give the final answer.

  • Explanation: Your working memory helps you temporarily hold the numbers and do the calculation without writing anything down.

• Following Directions:

  • Scenario: A teacher asks you to "walk to the door, turn left, go to the second room on the right, and sit at the desk in the far corner."

  • Working Memory: As you listen, you hold the instructions in your mind and keep track of the steps as you follow them, without needing to refer to a written list.

  • Explanation: You use your working memory to remember and sequence the steps of the instructions as you go through them.

Phonological loop

The phonological loop is responsible for handling verbal and auditory information. It allows you to temporarily store and rehearse sounds, words, and verbal material in your mind. This subsystem is critical for tasks that involve language processing, such as remembering phone numbers, learning new vocabulary, or repeating words silently in your mind.

Visuospatial sketchpad

The visuospatial sketchpad is responsible for processing and storing visual and spatial information. It allows you to create mental images and navigate through them, as well as remember how objects are arranged in space. This subsystem helps with tasks like visualizing routes, manipulating shapes, and remembering locations or positions of objects.

Central executive

The central executive is a key component of working memory that controls and coordinates the other subsystems (such as the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad). It acts as a "manager" in the brain, directing attention, switching between tasks, and integrating information from different sources. It is involved in high-level cognitive functions such as decision-making, problem-solving, and planning.

ex;

Problem-Solving with Multiple Information Sources:

• Scenario: You are trying to solve a math word problem that involves multiple steps, like calculating percentages and interpreting data from a graph.

• Central Executive: The central executive coordinates the information from the phonological loop (which helps you process the numbers) and the visuospatial sketchpad (which helps you interpret the graph). It directs your attention to the relevant data, helps you organize the steps of the solution, and integrates the results of each step.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after a brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

ex; Imagine you're learning a new motor skill, like playing the piano. When you practice, the neurons involved in controlling finger movements and reading musical notes are repeatedly activated. This repeated stimulation strengthens the synaptic connections between these neurons, improving the coordination and fluidity of your movements. Over time, the skill becomes easier to perform because the pathways between those neurons have been strengthened by LTP.

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and communicate (also called declarative memory)

Episodic memory

Explicit memory of specific events or experiences in your life, including the context in which they occurred (time, place, emotions).

Depends on brain areas such as the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex.

ex;

• Recalling your last birthday party, including who was there, what you ate, and how you felt.

• Remembering the first time you rode a bike and the specific details of the event.

• Thinking back to your first day at school and the emotions you experienced.

Semantic memory

Memory of general knowledge and facts that are not tied to a specific time or event.

ex;

• Knowing that Paris is the capital of France.

• Understanding that water boils at 100°C (212°F) at sea level.

• Recognizing the name of the current president or historical dates like when World War II ended.

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of unintentional information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings. produces implicit memory

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (also called nondeclarative memory)

• Riding a bicycle: You don't need to consciously think about how to balance or pedal; your body just knows what to do.

• Typing on a keyboard: Most people type without consciously remembering the location of each key.

• Driving a car: Over time, actions like shifting gears or braking become automatic.

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

ex;

• Glancing at a Scene:

  • If you quickly glance at a crowded room and then close your eyes, you might briefly "see" a snapshot of the scene in your mind, such as the arrangement of furniture or people.

• Watching a Flash of Light:

  • A brief flash of lightning during a storm creates an afterimage that you "see" for a fraction of a second even after the lightning disappears.

• Reading Scrolling Text:

  • When reading text that scrolls quickly (e.g., a marquee or subtitles), iconic memory helps retain each letter momentarily, allowing your brain to piece together the full message.

• Seeing a Camera Flash:

  • After a camera flash, you might see a bright, lingering image of the flash or the surrounding scene, even when the light has gone.

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

ex;

• "What Did You Say?" Phenomenon:

  • When someone speaks to you and you initially don’t register it, you might still "replay" their words in your mind a second later to understand them, even though you didn’t consciously focus on what they said at first.

• Remembering a Phone Number:

  • When someone recites a phone number, you can recall it momentarily even if you weren’t fully paying attention, as your echoic memory retains the auditory information briefly.

• Hearing a Train Whistle:

  • After a train whistle blows and stops, you might still "hear" the sound lingering in your mind for a second or two.

• Repeating Instructions:

  • If someone gives you verbal directions (e.g., "Take the second left, then a right"), you can often repeat them back immediately because the words remain in your echoic memory for a short while.

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

ex;

Phone Numbers:

• Instead of remembering a phone number as a string of 10 digits (e.g., 9876543210), you chunk it into smaller groups: 987-654-3210.

2. Dates:

• Remembering a date like 17761783 as two chunks: 1776 (American Revolution) and 1783 (Treaty of Paris).

3. Credit Card Numbers:

• A 16-digit credit card number (e.g., 1234567812345678) is chunked into groups of 4 digits: 1234 5678 1234 5678.

4. Learning a New Language:

• Instead of memorizing individual vocabulary words, you chunk them into meaningful phrases or expressions (e.g., "How are you?" instead of individual words).

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that that use vivid imagery and organized devices

ex;

Acronyms:

• Creating a word using the first letters of a list:

  • HOMES: To remember the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior).

  • ROYGBIV: For the colors of the rainbow (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).

2. Acrostics:

• Creating a sentence where each word starts with the same letter as the items in a list:

  • "My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos": To remember the planets of the solar system (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune).

  • "Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally": For the order of operations in math (Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction).

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

ex;

1. Studying for Exams:

• Ineffective: Cramming all night before the test.

• Effective: Reviewing material for an hour daily over a week, revisiting key concepts multiple times.

2. Learning a New Language:

• Practicing vocabulary flashcards for 15 minutes a day, three times a week, instead of studying for two hours in one session.

3. Music Practice:

• Practicing a piano piece for 30 minutes each day over two weeks results in better mastery than playing it for three hours in a single session.

4. Exercise Routines:

• Spreading out training sessions (e.g., weightlifting or running) throughout the week leads to better strength or endurance gains compared to doing all your workouts in one day.

5. Remembering Names and Faces:

• Reviewing a list of new colleagues’ names daily for a week helps remember them better than trying to memorize them all at once in one sitting.

Testing effect

enchanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning effect

ex;

Self-Quizzing for Exams:

• After studying a chapter, answering practice questions or creating your own flashcards to test your knowledge is more effective than re-reading the chapter multiple times.

2. Language Learning:

• Using flashcards to test vocabulary (e.g., seeing the word "perro" and recalling it means "dog") helps you remember the word better than simply reviewing a word list.

3. Learning Historical Facts:

• Quizzing yourself on dates, names, or events (e.g., "What year did the American Revolution begin?") helps cement the information better than re-reading a timeline.

Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

ex; Visual Appearance:

• Memorizing the shape or font of a word (e.g., noting that the word "CAT" is written in capital letters) without considering its meaning.

  Phonetics or Sound:

  • Repeating a word's sound aloud ("cat, cat, cat") without thinking about what the word represents.

  Counting Letters:

  • Counting the number of letters in a word (e.g., "The word 'elephant' has 8 letters") without reflecting on its meaning.

  Color Recognition:

  • Focusing on the color of a highlighted word in a text without processing the word's context.

Deep processing

encoding what something means, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

ex; Semantic Meaning:

• Understanding the meaning of "CAT" as a small domesticated animal and its association with pets.

  Making Connections:

  • Relating the word "CAT" to your own experiences, such as remembering a childhood pet or imagining a cat's behavior.

  Elaborative Encoding:

  • Thinking of synonyms (e.g., feline) or how the word "CAT" fits into a sentence like "The cat chased the mouse."

  Application:

  • Using the word in a sentence or imagining a scenario where it is relevant, such as "The black cat crossed the street during Halloween."

Memory Consolidation

the neural storage of a long term memory

Flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

ex;

• The Birth of a Child: Parents may have a vivid memory of the moment their child was born, including the room, the people present, and their emotions.

• A Car Accident: Someone involved in or witnessing a severe car accident might remember the sights, sounds, and feelings in great detail.

• Princess Diana’s Death (1997): Many remember exactly how they heard about her tragic passing and the emotional impact it had.

• Kobe Bryant’s Death (2020): Fans and admirers may recall the moment they learned about the helicopter crash and their reactions.

Semantic networks

Connect concepts, helps us group objects (humans, whales), based on characteristics they share (breathing air) and do not share (walk on 2 legs, living in ocean)

ex;

• Nodes: Dog, Animal, Cat, Bark, Pet

• Links:

  • "Dog is an animal."

  • "Dog is a pet."

  • "Dog barks."

  • "Cat is an animal."

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

ex;

1. Word Recognition:

• After seeing the word "yellow," you're more likely to recognize or think of the word "banana" faster than an unrelated word like "car."

2. Advertising:

• Watching an ad for a specific brand of soda (e.g., Coca-Cola) makes you more likely to choose that soda at the store, even if you don't consciously remember the ad.

3. Social Behavior:

• Reading words like "kind," "generous," or "helpful" might make you more likely to act kindly toward others shortly afterward.

Memory trace

initiated from the amygdala after stress provokes it and it is a lasting physical change as the memory forms that boosts activity in the brain's memory-forming areas and stores memories in brain areas. strengthened to repetition and decay if not reinforced which leads us to forget.

ex;

1. Learning a New Skill:

   • When you practice playing the piano, a memory trace is formed in your motor cortex, encoding the movements required for specific pieces.

2. Studying for an Exam:

   • Reading and reviewing material creates memory traces in areas like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, especially with techniques like elaborative rehearsal.

3. Emotional Memories:

   • An emotionally charged event, like a wedding or a car accident, forms a strong memory trace, often involving the amygdala.

4. Habit Formation:

   • Repeatedly performing a behavior, like brushing your teeth, creates memory traces in the basal ganglia, contributing to the automaticity of habits.

Encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

ex;
Smells as Cues:

• If you study while burning a specific scented candle, smelling that same scent later might help you recall the studied material.

Language or Culture Contexts:

• If you learned a historical fact in a foreign language, you might recall it better when thinking or speaking in that language.

Location-Based Triggers:

• Returning to your childhood home might help you remember specific childhood memories tied to that location.

Situational Recall:

• A soldier who encoded memories of combat while hearing gunfire may find those memories easier to recall when hearing similar sounds.

Chewing Gum While Studying:

• If you chew a specific flavor of gum while studying, chewing the same flavor during a test might enhance recall.

Retrieval Cues

stimulus or piece of information that helps trigger the recall of a memory. Retrieval cues can be internal (like thoughts or emotions) or external (like sights, sounds, or smells) and are effective because they are associated with the memory being retrieved.

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect), and the first items in a list after a delay (a priming effect)

ex;

• During a presentation, the audience remembers:

  • The opening statement or story (primacy effect).

  • The closing remarks or call to action (recency effect).

• The middle details might be less well-remembered.

Interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.

ex;

1. Studying for Exams:

• Instead of studying one subject at a time in blocks (e.g., all math, then all history), you alternate between subjects:

  • 30 minutes of math problems

  • 30 minutes of history notes

  • 30 minutes of science flashcards

2. Learning Math:

• Instead of solving a set of problems that all require the same formula (e.g., only multiplication), mix up problem types:

  • Problem 1: Solve for xxx in an equation.

  • Problem 2: Calculate the area of a circle.

  • Problem 3: Convert a fraction to a decimal.

• This forces you to think about which method to use for each problem.

Amnesia

anterograde- an inability to form new memories; problem moving information from short-term into long-term. hippocampus damage

retrograde- in inability to remember information from one’s past; problem retrieving long term memory to working memory. cerebral cortex damage

global- both

Proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

ex;

1. Learning Passwords:

   • You’ve been using a specific password for years. After changing it, you accidentally type the old password when trying to log in.

2. Language Learning:

   • If you learned Spanish first and then started learning Italian, you might mistakenly use Spanish words when speaking Italian.

3. Driving on Different Roads:

   • After moving to a new city, you might unconsciously drive toward your old workplace instead of the new one.

4. Phone Numbers:

   • If you’ve memorized a friend’s old phone number, it might be difficult to remember their new one.

5. Sports Techniques:

   • A tennis player learning a new swing might struggle because their previous technique keeps interfering.

Retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

ex;
Studying for Exams:

• After studying psychology and then moving on to study history, you might forget the psychology material because the history material is interfering.

• Learning a New Dance Routine:

  • Learning a new routine might make you forget parts of an older routine.

• Updating Software:

  • After using a new version of software, you might forget how to use features in the old version.

• Job Responsibilities:

  • If you get a promotion and learn new responsibilities, you might forget some details about your previous tasks.

• Name Recall:

  • After meeting a new colleague, you might struggle to remember the name of someone you met earlier in the day.

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

ex;

1. Updating Facts:

• You learned in school that Pluto is a planet. Years later, you hear it’s now classified as a dwarf planet. When recalling Pluto’s status, your brain updates and reconsolidates the memory to align with the new information.

2. Altering Personal Memories:

• You recall a family vacation where you believed it rained the entire time. After discussing it with a sibling, you learn it only rained for one day. This new information changes your memory of the trip during reconsolidation.

3. Language Corrections:

• If you’ve been mispronouncing a word for years (e.g., “epitome”), learning the correct pronunciation and repeatedly saying it correctly will modify your original memory through reconsolidation.

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading info

ex;

1. Eyewitness Testimony:

• After witnessing a car accident, a person is asked, "How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?" The word "smashed" suggests a higher speed, causing the witness to recall the accident as more severe than it was.

• If asked about broken glass (when there was none), the witness might falsely remember seeing it.

2. News Coverage Influence:

• After watching a news report about a robbery that inaccurately describes the suspect wearing a red hat, witnesses who initially didn’t recall a hat might later "remember" the suspect wearing one.

3. Conversations with Others:

• Two friends discuss a shared experience, like a concert. One incorrectly mentions a specific song being played. The other friend, influenced by this false information, may later "remember" the song being performed.

Source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to the wrong source).

ex;

1. Remembering a Fact Without the Source:

• You confidently state, "Bananas are berries," but can’t remember where you heard or read this fact—whether it was from a documentary, a friend, or an article.

2. Misattributing a Story to a Friend:

• You tell a funny story at a party, thinking a close friend experienced it, but later realize you actually heard it in a podcast.

3. Thinking a Dream Was Reality:

• You recall having a conversation with someone and act on that memory, only to later realize the conversation happened in a dream.

motivated forgetting

intentionally or unconsciously forgetting information that is distressing or uncomfortable

General intelligence

according to Charles Spearman and others, underlie all mental abilities and is, therefore, measured by every task on an intelligence test. Those who score higher in one area, such as verbal intelligence, typically score higher than average in other areas, such as spatial or reasoning ability. Often measured using IQ-tests and key indicator of cognitive potential

ex;

• Academic Performance:

  • A student who excels in math may also do well in reading comprehension or science due to a strong g factor.

• Problem-Solving:

  • A person who quickly finds solutions to puzzles may also perform well in strategic games or planning tasks.

• Cross-Domain Success:

  • Someone who is adept at analyzing business data might also have an easier time learning a new skill, like playing a musical instrument or understanding complex machinery.

Factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score.

ex;

1. Psychology:

   • Spearman used factor analysis to identify the g factor (general intelligence) by analyzing correlations between scores on different mental ability tests.

2. Personality Research:

   • Used to develop models like the Big Five Personality Traits, where five factors (e.g., openness, conscientiousness) explain patterns in personality-related behaviors.

3. Education:

   • Identifies clusters of skills or knowledge areas in student performance data (e.g., reading comprehension and vocabulary may form a "verbal ability" factor).

4. Market Research:

   • Analyzes consumer preferences to group similar products or identify common factors influencing purchasing behavior.

5. Healthcare:

   • Groups symptoms to identify underlying health conditions or syndromes.

Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood

ex;

• Solving Puzzles:

  • Figuring out how to complete a Sudoku or a new logic puzzle you’ve never seen before.

• Learning a New Game:

  • Understanding the rules and strategies of a game you’re playing for the first time.

• Finding Patterns:

  • Recognizing trends in a series of numbers, shapes, or data points.

• Escape Rooms:

  • Using critical thinking and problem-solving skills to unlock clues and escape.

• Scientific Discovery:

  • A scientist developing a hypothesis or experiment to test a new concept.

Crystallized intelligence (Gc)

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

ex;

• Vocabulary Skills:

  • Knowing the meaning of a word and using it appropriately in a sentence.

• Historical Knowledge:

  • Recalling details about historical events or figures, like the causes of World War II.

• Math Facts:

  • Using multiplication tables or formulas you’ve memorized to solve problems.

• Cultural Knowledge:

  • Understanding the traditions and customs of your own or another culture.

• Teaching:

  • Explaining how to solve a math problem using methods you’ve learned and practiced.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory

the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities that are bridged by Gf and Gc and these specific abilities are broad and narrow, such as reading ability, memory capacity, and processing speed.

Savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as drawing or skate boarding

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence’s

challenges the traditional view of intelligence as a single general ability. Gardner proposed that humans possess different types of intelligence’s, each representing a unique way of interacting with the world

the eight intelligence’s:

• Linguistic Intelligence ("Word Smart"):

  • Ability to use language effectively for reading, writing, speaking, and understanding.

  • Examples:

    • Poets, writers, journalists, orators.

    • A novelist crafting a compelling story.

    • A lawyer delivering persuasive arguments.

• Logical-Mathematical Intelligence ("Number/Reasoning Smart"):

  • Capacity for logical reasoning, problem-solving, and understanding complex numerical concepts.

  • Examples:

    • Mathematicians, scientists, engineers.

    • A data analyst interpreting patterns in statistics.

    • A chess player strategizing moves.

• Spatial Intelligence ("Picture Smart"):

  • Ability to visualize, manipulate, and interpret spatial relationships.

  • Examples:

    • Architects, graphic designers, pilots.

    • A sculptor creating a 3D artwork.

    • A gamer navigating virtual environments.

• Musical Intelligence ("Music Smart"):

  • Sensitivity to sound patterns, pitch, rhythm, and musical structure.

  • Examples:

    • Composers, singers, instrumentalists.

    • A musician composing a symphony.

    • A sound engineer mixing audio tracks.

• Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("Body Smart"):

  • Proficiency in using one's body to express ideas, perform actions, or create products.

  • Examples:

    • Dancers, athletes, surgeons, actors.

    • A gymnast performing a complex routine.

    • A craftsman carving intricate designs.

• Interpersonal Intelligence ("People Smart"):

  • Ability to understand, empathize with, and interact effectively with others.

  • Examples:

    • Teachers, counselors, politicians, team leaders.

    • A therapist helping clients navigate emotional challenges.

    • A manager motivating their team.

• Intrapersonal Intelligence ("Self Smart"):

  • Deep self-awareness and the ability to reflect on one's emotions, motivations, and goals.

  • Examples:

    • Philosophers, spiritual leaders, self-help authors.

    • A writer exploring personal experiences in an autobiography.

    • A monk practicing meditation to achieve self-realization.

• Naturalistic Intelligence ("Nature Smart"):

  • Sensitivity to nature, including plants, animals, and environmental phenomena.

  • Examples:

    • Biologists, farmers, environmentalists.

    • A botanist studying plant species in the rainforest.

    • A wildlife photographer capturing animal behavior.

Robert Sternbert’s three intelligence

Analytical Intelligence ("Book Smart")

• Refers to problem-solving and critical thinking abilities, such as analyzing, evaluating, and comparing information.

• Often measured by traditional IQ tests.

Examples:

• Solving math problems or logical puzzles.

• Analyzing a literary text for themes and symbolism.

• Evaluating the effectiveness of different strategies to solve a business problem.

2. Creative Intelligence ("Innovative Smart")

• Involves the ability to think outside the box, generate new ideas, and adapt to novel situations.

• Related to imagination and innovation.

Examples:

• Writing a unique story or composing original music.

• Designing an innovative product or service for a startup.

• Figuring out how to solve an unfamiliar problem, such as creating a workaround for a malfunctioning device.

3. Practical Intelligence ("Street Smart")

• Refers to the ability to handle everyday tasks, make decisions in real-world situations, and adapt to one's environment.

• Often associated with "common sense."

Examples:

• Managing time effectively in a busy schedule.

• Navigating a social situation, such as resolving a conflict between coworkers.

• Repairing a household appliance without prior experience by figuring out a practical solution.

Emotional intelligence

the ability to..

• Perceive Emotions

• Understanding Emotions

• Managing Emotions

• Using Emotions

these people are socially aware and self-aware. They avoid being hijacked by overwhelming depression, anxiety, or anger. They can read other’s emotional cues and know what to say to soothe a grieving friend, encourage a workmate, and manage a conflict. They can delay gratification in pursuit of long-range rewards.

Achievement test

a test designed to asses what a person has learned.

ex;

• SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test): Assesses math, reading, and writing skills for college admissions.

• ACT: Similar to the SAT but includes a science reasoning section.

• State Standardized Tests: Measure students’ proficiency in subjects like math, reading, and science at grade levels.

Aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

ex;

• LSAT (Law School Admission Test):

  • Assesses logical reasoning, analytical reasoning, and reading comprehension.

  • Predicts a candidate’s ability to succeed in law school.

• MCAT (Medical College Admission Test):

  • Measures skills in areas such as biological sciences, physical sciences, and critical reasoning.

  • Predicts success in medical school.

• SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test):

  • Measures verbal reasoning, math reasoning, and writing skills, primarily for college admissions.

  • Predicts a student's potential for academic success at the university level.

• ACT (American College Testing):

  • Assesses academic readiness in English, math, reading, and science.

  • Also used for college admissions and predicting future academic success.

Mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance, devised by Alfred Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age.

• a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old (can either be 8 or another age older or younger) is said to have a mental age of 8.

Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test. This test asses cognitive abilities, including reasoning, knowledge, qualitative reasoning, visuaspatial processing, and working memory.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ=ma/ca x 100).

ex;

IQ= mental age of 10

———————— X 100= 125

chronological age

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS and its common versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

1. Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ)

• A composite score representing overall cognitive ability.

• Derived from the performance across all subtests.

2. Index Scores

The WAIS provides scores in the following cognitive domains:

• Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI):

  • Measures verbal reasoning, understanding, and the ability to express ideas.

  • Example Subtests:

    • Vocabulary: Define the meanings of words.

    • Similarities: Explain how two things are alike.

    • Information: Answer general knowledge questions.

• Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI):

  • Measures non-verbal reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and problem-solving.

  • Example Subtests:

    • Block Design: Recreate a pattern using colored blocks.

    • Matrix Reasoning: Identify patterns or logical sequences.

    • Visual Puzzles: Solve visual problems by assembling pieces.

• Working Memory Index (WMI):

  • Measures short-term memory, attention, and concentration.

  • Example Subtests:

    • Digit Span: Repeat numbers in forward, backward, or sequential order.

    • Arithmetic: Solve math problems without a calculator.

• Processing Speed Index (PSI):

  • Assesses how quickly and accurately one can process information.

  • Example Subtests:

    • Symbol Search: Identify matching symbols quickly.

    • Coding: Pair symbols with numbers using a key.

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

Standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Process: test-makers give new tests to a representative sample of people. Scores from this presented group become the basis for future comparisons. If you take the test following the same procedures, your score, when compared with others, will be meaningful

Example: Census Surveys

• Questions are worded identically for all participants, and surveyors follow a set script.

• Purpose: To gather unbiased, comparable data on populations.

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of score on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

ex;

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): If a person takes the WAIS today and then takes it again in a few weeks, their IQ score should be very similar if the test is reliable.

• SAT: If the same person takes the SAT multiple times, their scores should be relatively stable, especially if they take it under similar conditions.

Validity

the extent to which a test measured or predicts what it is supposed to.

ex;

• If a person scores 110 on the WAIS and consistently performs well in tasks that require problem-solving, reasoning, and understanding—tasks that are related to intelligence—then the test is valid because it accurately measures what it claims to measure: cognitive ability.

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.

ex;

• Math Achievement Test:

Suppose a teacher designs a math test to measure students' knowledge of basic arithmetic. To ensure content validity, the test should cover a range of topics that are expected to be part of the curriculum, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It should not focus exclusively on one topic like multiplication, as that would not represent the full content that students are expected to know.

English Language Proficiency Test:

• If an English language proficiency test is designed to assess writing skills, content validity would require that the test includes different types of writing tasks (e.g., essays, summaries, reports) and not just one type, ensuring it reflects all aspects of writing that students are expected to know.

Construct validity

how much a test measures a concept or trait.

ex;

Depression Scale:

• A survey designed to measure depression should not include items that assess unrelated conditions, such as anxiety or stress. If the items on the scale correspond to the symptoms outlined in the psychological theory of depression (e.g., sadness, loss of interest), the scale has good construct validity.

Predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (also called criterion-related validity)

ex;

Job Aptitude Tests:

• A company might use an aptitude test during hiring to predict how well candidates will perform on the job. If those who score well on the test are more likely to succeed in the role (e.g., higher productivity, good performance reviews), the test has strong predictive validity.

Cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different age at the same point in time

Longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

Cohort

a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as being from a given time period

ex;

1990 Birth Cohort: All individuals born in 1990. Researchers might follow this group over the years to study trends in health, education, and socio-economic status. For example, a study may investigate how children born in 1990 are affected by advances in technology or changes in the education system.

Stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

ex; Gender and Math Performance

• Research has shown that women may experience stereotype threat when asked to perform math tasks, as they are often stereotyped as being less capable in math compared to men.

• Scenario: A woman is aware of the stereotype that women are worse at math, and when she is asked to take a math test, the anxiety of potentially confirming this stereotype can hinder her performance.

• Outcome: The woman may score lower on the math test than if she were not primed with this stereotype, even if she has the same mathematical ability as anyone else.