The American Revolution starts

Who replaced the Earl of Rockingham as Prime Minister after the Stamp Act crisis?

William Pitt, the same prime minister who made the French and Indian War a war for the colonies themselves. He had serious "street cred" in the colonies because he understood their importance.

Why did William Pitt's government still tax the colonies despite his sympathy?

Britain was up to its elbows in debt from the French and Indian War. Even Pitt's government chose to raise taxes in the colonies rather than further tax the already heavily-taxed British people.

Who was Charles Townshend?

Townshend was the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Treasury Secretary) under William Pitt. He wielded enormous power and proposed the Townshend Acts - taxes on imports like tea, glass, and lead.

Why were the Townshend Acts demoralizing to colonists?

Even with William Pitt (who loved the colonies) as Prime Minister, they still got the same old taxes on trade. This showed that even in the best-case scenario, Britain would keep taxing them.

What did the Townshend Acts reveal about political divisions?

The division wasn't really between British Whigs and Tories anymore - functionally they passed the same policies. This was now a debate between American colonists and the British Parliament as a whole.

What did the terms "Whig" and "Tory" originally mean in Britain?

Tories were the party of the king, nobility, Church of England, and stronger centralized government. Whigs were the party of the middle class, small farmers, merchants, and limiting the king's power.

How did Americans use the term "Whig" differently than the British?

When Americans called themselves Whigs, they weren't claiming to be part of the British Whig party. They were advertising that they challenged authoritarian control. "Tory" increasingly meant loyalist to the crown.

Who was John Dickinson and why was he significant?

Dickinson was a moderate, reasonable Quaker and Centrist in Pennsylvania. Even he wrote "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania" discussing resistance by force, showing how even moderates were becoming radicalized.

What did John Dickinson say about resistance by force?

He said "the English History affords frequent examples of resistance by force" and that resistance might be justified when "any further submission will be destructive to their happiness." He was connecting colonial struggle to British history.

What is "Whig history"?

The idea that history is all about the triumph of progress - the little guy triumphing over mean people, bullies, and autocratic government. The term comes from this period's view of English history.

What was the Liberty incident?

John Hancock's ship (called the Liberty) was impounded for smuggling wine. It was later converted to a British revenue cutter, then ran aground in Rhode Island where an angry mob burned it.

What was the Gaspee incident?

The Gaspee was a British revenue ship charged with inspecting ships and seizing smuggled cargo. It also ran aground in Rhode Island and was burned by an angry mob. (Lesson: Don't maroon yourself in Rhode Island.)

What is the traditional narrative of the Boston Massacre (1770)?

The traditional narrative is that British troops opened fire on unarmed protesters voicing grievances against tyranny, showing colonists they were better off without Britain.

What is the actual context of the Boston Massacre?

The relationship between Massachusetts and Britain was already very tense. British troops were stationed in Boston homes, challenged people on the streets, and competed for jobs with locals by accepting lower wages.

How did the Boston Massacre actually start?

A lone British sentry, Hugh Montgomery, was confronted and mocked by kids. When words became snowballs and stones, Montgomery called for help. A crowd of hundreds gathered, including Sons of Liberty members, taunting soldiers to fire.

What triggered the actual shooting at the Boston Massacre?

Someone from the crowd hit a British soldier with a club. At some point shots were fired (unclear who gave the order) and five people were killed, including Crispus Attucks, an African American.

Who was Crispus Attucks?

An African American killed in the Boston Massacre, often described in civics classes as the first person to die in the cause of American independence.

Who defended the British soldiers after the Boston Massacre?

John Adams, later the second president, took the case even though he had documented reservations about British taxation. He thought the Boston Massacre was the wrong way to air grievances.

What was the relationship between John Adams and Samuel Adams?

They were cousins who shared some political ideas but disagreed on methods. Samuel Adams led the Sons of Liberty; John Adams thought their tactics were messy chaos that got people killed.

What did John Adams accomplish in the Boston Massacre trial?

He convinced a jury of Bostonians that the British troops acted in self-defense and were within their rights. This shows that even in 1770, not everyone bought into the radical narrative.

What happened to the Townshend Acts after 1770?

They were "modified" (the British wouldn't say repealed) so that most import taxes were dropped. Only the tax on tea remained. This was another colonial victory through non-importation and resistance.

What was the British East India Company?

A British joint stock company that administered India (Britain didn't directly rule India until 1857). Like other joint stock companies, it eventually declared bankruptcy.

Why did the British bail out the East India Company?

India was too expensive for the British government to administer directly. Instead, they bailed out the company but had to accrue even more debt to do so.

How did tea relate to the East India Company crisis?

India produced large quantities of tea leaves. Prime Minister Lord North decided to help the company by opening American colonial markets to buy this cheap tea from India.

Why was tea considered a luxury item in the 18th century?

Tea was "like the avocado of the 18th century" - drinking it (especially with your pinky extended and dowsing it in sugar) demonstrated you belonged to a high social class and had wealth.

What was the British plan with the Tea Act?

Tax the tea to get revenue, but sell it cheaply from India so colonists get a luxury item at a bargain. It seemed like a win-win - Britain gets money, colonists get cheap tea.

Why did the Tea Act fail despite seeming like a good deal?

By this point, trust between the mother country and colonies had eroded, at least according to radical groups like the Sons of Liberty. It was too little, too late.

What happened at the Boston Tea Party (1773)?

Members of the Sons of Liberty dressed up as Native Americans, boarded British tea ships in Boston Harbor, and threw the tea overboard.

How did most people view the Boston Tea Party at the time?

Most viewed it as a stupid college fraternity prank, not an "America moment." Even George Washington called Bostonians "mad" (crazy) for this petty vandalism.

How much damage was done at the Boston Tea Party?

The Sons of Liberty destroyed over 18,000 pounds of tea (some sources say 18 million tea bags), valued at roughly $1 million in today's terms - not a small amount.

What were the Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts)?

A series of punitive acts passed by Parliament after the Boston Tea Party. They were coercive and Massachusetts found them intolerable - this was Britain's explosion after being pushed too far.

What did the Coercive Acts do to Boston Harbor?

Boston Harbor was closed until the people of Boston paid for the destroyed tea. This devastated Massachusetts's economy, which revolved around trade and shipbuilding.

What did the Coercive Acts do to the Massachusetts legislature?

The Massachusetts General Court (legislature) was dissolved by law. The British argued it wasn't a real legislature anyway, so they could just ban it.

How is the British constitution different from the U.S. Constitution?

The British constitution is "everything" - every act of Parliament, court decisions, Magna Carta, traditions. If the constitution is everything, then it's effectively nothing special. There's no supreme law above Parliament.

Why is the U.S. Constitution so short compared to British constitutional documents?

The founders learned that the more you put in a constitution, the less significant any of it becomes. They wanted it short and supreme - only the fundamental structure of government and key rights.

How much does the First Amendment accomplish in a short space?

It guarantees freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion (both to practice and freedom from establishment) - an enormous amount in very brief prose.

Who became the new Royal Governor of Massachusetts under the Coercive Acts?

Thomas Gage, a British general from Massachusetts. This meant Boston was placed under direct military rule rather than civilian rule.

Why was military rule particularly frightening to Massachusetts?

They had baggage from the English Civil War and feared military dictatorship like under Oliver Cromwell. This was the culmination of everything they'd worried about for centuries.

What religious provision in the Coercive Acts angered Massachusetts?

Religious liberty was given to French Catholics in Canada. Massachusetts had called Louisbourg "the stronghold of Satan" because Catholicism = Satanism to them, so this was infuriating.

How did Massachusetts respond to the Coercive Acts?

The General Court reconvened in Suffolk (since they only shut it down in Boston) and passed the Suffolk Resolves - declaring the Coercive Acts unconstitutional.

What did the Suffolk Resolves advise colonists to do?

They advised people to arm themselves. This was the beginning of the Minutemen - militia organized to deploy in less than a minute's time.

How were the Minutemen different from typical militia?

Typical militia were pretty bad - they wouldn't stand and fight and were generally unreliable. The Minutemen took militia duty seriously and were the exception that proves the rule.

What was the First Continental Congress (1774)?

A gathering of delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia to respond to the Coercive Acts. These were typically the best members of their state legislatures - the cream of the crop.

What two things did the First Continental Congress need to figure out?

One: What liberties they had as English subjects and what rights Parliament had over them. Two: How to respond to the Coercive Acts without being too weak OR too strong.

What did the First Continental Congress decide to do?

They adopted non-importation agreements (which dropped British imports 97% by 1775) and promised to stop exports too if the Coercive Acts weren't repealed. Then they waited to see what would happen.

What were Committees of Observation and Inspection?

Committees formed by the First Continental Congress to wait and see what happened after their non-importation agreements. There was no decisive resolution beyond waiting.

Why did Thomas Gage order troops to seize colonial weapons?

The Suffolk Resolves encouraged militia to arm and stockpile weapons, making Gage nervous. He thought he could diffuse the situation by sneaking troops across at night to take their guns while they slept.

Why is Gage's plan significant to modern American gun debates?

This may explain why Americans "act dispassionately and rationally any time somebody says we're going to take so and so's guns" - it's historically connected to the start of the Revolutionary War.

Who alerted the colonists that British troops were marching?

Paul Revere and other members of the Sons of Liberty spread word that "British regulars" were marching toward Concord to seize weapons.

What happened at the North Bridge outside Concord?

British troops arrived to find a large force of Massachusetts militia in battle lines waiting for them. The two forces stared each other down with muskets leveled, but nobody wanted to make the first move.

What was each side thinking during the standoff at Concord?

The British thought the provincials would see sense - they're British subjects facing the British Army. The militia thought surely their disagreements weren't worth killing over - they shared values of representative government.

What is "the shot heard round the world"?

The first shot fired at Concord that inaugurated the American Revolution. Nobody gave the order - someone got nervous in the tense standoff and fired, triggering both sides to discharge volleys.

Why were the British at a disadvantage after shots were fired?

They were suddenly in hostile territory surrounded by dozens of militia bands. What was meant to be a stealthy operation stirred up a hornet's nest, creating the very rebellion they wanted to suppress.

What happened to the British troops after Concord?

They had to fight for their lives retreating all the way back to Boston, with hundreds then thousands of militia men taking pot shots at them the entire way.

What happened to Boston after Lexington and Concord?

Within days, 7,000-16,000 Massachusetts militia men surrounded Boston. The most significant British military stronghold was suddenly under siege by an army with no country, no commander, and no ideology but frustration.

Why was the situation after Lexington and Concord problematic for the Continental Congress?

There was now a war in Massachusetts, but the delegates who supposedly spoke for the colonies had to figure out how to respond. The country was going to war with or without the Continental Congress.