HDFS 311 Final Exam

What is correlational research?

a non-experimental study that examines the relationship between two or more variables to see if they are associated

What does correlational research measure?

strength and direction but cannot show causation

Example of correlational research

studying the relationship between hours of sleep and test scores in students to see if they are related

What is a cross-sectional study?

a study that examines different participants at one point in time to compare variables or groups

Why is a cross-sectional study useful?

useful for identifying patterns and correlations but cannot track changes over time

Example of a cross-sectional study

Comparing vocabulary skills in 5-, 7-, and 9-year-olds at the same point in time to see age differences.

What is a longitudinal study?

A research design that follows the same participants over a long period of time to observe changes and development; can show patterns and potential causal relationships over time

Longitudinal study example

Following the same group of children from age 5 to 15 to track how their reading skills develop over time

Piaget's social-cognitive theory of development

It explains how children actively construct knowledge through interactions with their environment, progressing through stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Pre-Operational

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6/ 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Operational

Logical thinking about concrete events; understand conservation. (7-11 years)

Concrete Operational

Abstract and hypothetical reasoning develops. (12+)

schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

example of assimilation

A child who knows dogs have four legs sees a cat and calls it a dog because it fits their "four-legged animal" schema

accommodation

when a child changes or creates a new schema to fit new information that does not fit existing schemas

accommodation example

A child who thought all four-legged animals are dogs learns that a cat is different and creates a new "cat" schema

equilibrium

Equilibrium is the state of cognitive balance when a child's existing schemas can explain their experiences. When new information doesn't fit, disequilibrium occurs, prompting assimilation or accommodation to restore balance

example of equilibrium

A child knows dogs have four legs (schema) and sees a cat. At first, they might call it a dog (disequilibrium). After learning it's a cat, they adjust their schema (equilibrium restored)

Object permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. It develops during the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years).

Object permanence ages

Around 4-8 months: Babies begin to look for partially hidden objects.
Around 8-12 months: They search for fully hidden objects, showing stronger understanding.

egocentrism

is the tendency of young children (typically in the preoperational stage, 2-7 years) to view the world only from their own perspective and have difficulty understanding others' viewpoints

example of egocentrism

A child covers their eyes and believes others can't see them.
A child assumes everyone knows what they know or likes what they like

conservation of mass

is the understanding that quantity or mass remains the same even when its shape or appearance changes.

example of conservation of mass

A child sees clay rolled into a ball and then flattened into a pancake and understands it's still the same amount of clay.
Pouring water from a short wide cup into a tall thin cup doesn't change the amount, and the child recognizes this.

abstract reasoning

is the ability to think about concepts, hypothetical situations, and ideas that are not concrete or visible. It develops during the formal operational stage (12+ years).

example of abstract reasoning

A teenager can solve algebra problems without using physical objects.
They can consider moral dilemmas or imagine "what if" scenarios, like planning for future possibilities

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

How do children learn?

Children learn through social interaction and cultural experiences. They acquire knowledge by interacting with more knowledgeable others (adults or peers) and through language, which guides thinking and problem-solving.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

is the range of tasks that a child cannot do alone but can accomplish with guidance or support from a more knowledgeable person

Zone of Proximal Development example

A child can't tie their shoes alone, but with step-by-step help from a parent, they succeed.
Over time, the child learns to tie shoes independently, moving the skill out of the ZPD.

Bronfenbrenner's ecological model of development

Bronfenbrenner's model explains child development as influenced by multiple layers of environmental systems interacting with the child.

Microsystem

Immediate environments (family, school, peers)

Mesosystem

Connections between microsystems (parent-teacher interactions)

Exosystem

Indirect environments affecting the child (parent's workplace)

Macrosystem

Broader cultural, societal, and economic influences.
Chronosystem: Changes over time (life events, historical context)

Where are families in the ecological model? Teachers and classrooms?Interactions between parents and teachers?

Microsystem = direct environments (family, teachers, peers).
Mesosystem = links between microsystems (parent-teacher interactions, family-peer connections).

Epigenetics: Gene X Environment Interactions

studies how environmental factors can turn genes on or off without changing the DNA sequence, influencing development, health, and behavior

What can affect gene expression related to mental health?

stress, nutrition, or toxins

Epigenetics: Gene X Environment Interactions: A child with a genetic predisposition for high intelligence may reach their potential only in a

stimulating environment

What is a reaction range?

Is the genetically determined limits within which a trait (like intelligence or height) can develop, depending on environmental influences.

Reaction range: A child may have a genetic potential for a height between 5'6" and 6'0", but ….

nutrition and health determine where they actually fall within that range

Reaction range: A child may have high genetic potential for musical ability, but

practice and exposure influence how much skill they develop

How did we see genes and environment interact to shape cognitive development?

Genes provide the potential for cognitive abilities, while the environment influences how that potential is expressed. Experiences like stimulation, education, nutrition, and social interaction can enhance or limit development.

Physical development from infancy through childhood: gross motor

large muscle movements

Physical development from infancy through childhood: fine motor

small muscle movements for precision tasks

Gross motor:

lifting head, rolling over, sitting, crawling, standing, walking, running, kicking a ball, hopping, throwing and catching, riding a bike

Fine motor:

grasping objects with whole hands (palmer grasp), pincer grasp, stacking blocks, holding a pencil, tying shoes, playing musical instruments

What is the sequence of physical skill development over the first two years of life? (e.g., work backwards from a child learning to jump at 2years of age...what do they need to master first?)

Head control - Lifting and turning head while on tummy (~1-3 months)

Rolling over - Front to back and back to front (~3-6 months)

Sitting without support (~5-8 months)

Crawling - Moving on hands and knees (~6-10 months)

Pulling to stand (~8-12 months)

Cruising - Walking while holding onto furniture (~9-12 months)

Independent walking (~12-15 months)

Squatting, stooping, and standing up (~15-18 months)

Running and climbing (~18-24 months)

Jumping with both feet (~24 months / 2 years)

Socioemotional development from infancy through childhood

Attachment

is the emotional bond that develops between a child and their primary caregiver(s), which provides security, comfort, and a base for exploration.

Secure attachment:

Infant feels safe to explore when caregiver is present; seeks comfort when distressed

Insecure attachment:

Avoidant, ambivalent, or disorganized responses to caregiver.

Secure attachment

Child feels safe and comforted; explores freely when caregiver is present.

Secure attachment example

Baby cries when parent leaves but is quickly soothed when they return.

Avoidant attachment

Child avoids or ignores caregiver; shows little distress on separation.

Avoidant attachment example

Baby doesn't seek comfort when parent returns

ambivalent/resistant attachment

Child is anxious and clingy; hard to soothe when caregiver returns.

ambivalent/resistant attachment example

Baby cries intensely, then resists being held

disorganized attachment

Child shows confused or contradictory behavior toward caregiver

example of disorganized attachment

Baby may approach but then freeze or show fear of parent

Basic emotions and secondary emotions (What are they? When do they emerge? basic emotions

Basic emotions appear by 6 months: joy, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, surprise

Basic emotions and secondary emotions (What are they? When do they emerge? secondary emotions

Secondary emotions that appear around 18-24 months: shame, guilt, pride, embarrassment, envy

Theory of mind development

is the ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own; This holds across cultures and languages

Theory of mind development: 3 year olds

Have difficulty with false-belief problems

Theory of mind development: 4 year olds

4-year-olds: Begin to pass false-belief tasks

Theory of mind development: 5 year olds

5-year-olds: Find false-belief problems very easy

Socialization processes (gender, family, peers, media)

is how children learn norms, behaviors, values, and roles from their environment

Socialization processes (gender, family, peers, media); gender

Learning expectations for male and female roles through family, peers, and culture

Socialization processes (gender, family, peers, media); family

Primary source of values, rules, emotional support, and early social skills

example of family in Socialization processes

Parents model communication, cooperation, and discipline

Socialization processes (gender, family, peers, media); peers

Influence friendship, social skills, and identity; peer acceptance shapes behavior.

Socialization processes (gender, family, peers, media); peers example

Children adopt speech patterns, interests, or play styles from friends

Socialization processes (gender, family, peers, media); media

Shapes knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors about society, culture, and roles

Socialization processes (gender, family, peers, media); media example

TV shows, social media, and games influence ideas about appearance, behavior, and social norms

Multistore Model of Memory

The explanation of memory detailing three stores : sensory, short-term store and long-term store

Memory systems: Sensory register

the first stage of memory where sensory information from the environment is briefly stored

Memory systems: Sensory register- holds exact copies of

sights, sounds, and other sensory input

Memory systems: Sensory register- duration

Very short—milliseconds to a few seconds

Memory systems: Sensory register- capacity

Large, but information fades quickly unless attended to

working memory

is the system for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for cognitive tasks like reasoning, learning, and problem-solving.

working memory; duration

Seconds to minutes unless rehearsed

working memory; capacity

Limited (usually 4-7 items for adults)

working memory; function

ctively processes information from sensory memory and long-term memory

long term memory

is the system for storing information over extended periods, from hours to a lifetime.

long term memory- capacity and duration

Essentially unlimited.
Duration: From hours to decades.

what are the types of long term memory

explicit, episodic, semantic, implicit, procedural

long term memory; explicit

Conscious memory of facts and events

long term memory; episodic

personal experiences

long term memory; semantic

general knowledge and facts

long term memory; implicit

Unconscious memory, such as skills and habits

long term memory; procedural

riding a bike, typing

retrieval

is the process of accessing and bringing stored information from long-term memory into conscious awareness.

retrieval examples

recognizing a face and remembering their name and remembering a recipe without having to look it up

rehearsal

the process of repeating information to keep it in short-term/working memory or to encode it into long-term memory.

Maintenance rehearsal:

Simple repetition to hold information temporarily.

Maintenance rehearsal: example

Repeating a phone number until you dial it.

Elaborative rehearsal:

Connecting new information to existing knowledge to store it long-term

Elaborative rehearsal: example

Relating a new vocabulary word to a word you already know or making a story with it.

elaboration

is a memory strategy that involves connecting new information to existing knowledge or creating meaningful associations to enhance encoding into long-term memory

elaboration examples

Linking a new vocabulary word to a personal experience.
Creating a story or mental image to remember a list of items.