SCI REV AND ENLIGHTENMENT TEST REVIE

Scientific Method

A process of making observations, testing ideas with experiments, and analyzing results. Important because it prevents mistakes and ensures reliable results.

Steps of the Scientific Method

Observation → Hypothesis → Experiment → Analysis → Conclusion

Biology

Study of life and organisms

Chemistry

Study of chemical reactions

Astronomy

Study of space

Physics

Study of how things move

Origins of Museums

Started as private collections of rich people who collected items of interest, like human skeletons for biology.

Importance of Expressing Science as Math

Math gives precise answers and allows ideas to be tested and proven accurately.

Empirical

Based on observation or experience, not belief; ensures results are real evidence.

Newton

England; discovered laws of motion and mathematical principles of nature.

Bacon

England; promoted experimentation and observation; The Advancement of Learning.

Galileo

Italy; made the telescope and supported the sun-centered solar system.

Kepler

Germany; showed planets move in ellipses using Brahe's data.

Descartes

France; promoted skepticism and reason; method of inquiry based on empirical data.

Mercantilism

Idea that money is limited and nations should hoard wealth.

Capitalism

Adam Smith; economic system based on reason, individualism, and private enterprise.

The Wealth of Nations

Written by Adam Smith; introduced capitalism as an alternative to mercantilism.

Direct Democracy

Citizens participate directly in government decisions.

Republic

People vote for representatives to make government decisions.

Monarchy

One ruler has all the power.

Constitutional Monarchy

Monarch exists but must follow laws; power is limited.

Enlightenment / Age of Reason

A period when people used reason, science, and observation to understand the world.

Connection Between Science and Enlightenment

Scientific laws could be expressed mathematically; science inspired political and religious alternatives.

Rationalism

Reason is the final authority in all matters.

Cosmology

Study of humanity's place in the universe.

Secularism

Applying scientific methods to religion and philosophy.

Utilitarianism

Greatest good for the greatest number; strengthens community but may prioritize collective over individual.

Tolerance

No opinion is worth harming others over; respect others' beliefs.

Physico-theology

Using nature to explain God's Providence instead of the Bible.

Deism

Belief in God based on reason and nature, not organized religion.

Rational Faith

Religion free of mysteries, miracles, and superstitions; focus on moral lessons of the Bible.

Hobbes

England; Leviathan; humans need government to avoid chaos.

Locke

England; Two Treatises of Government; humans have free will and natural rights.

Voltaire

France; Candide; freedom of speech, challenge authority.

Montesquieu

France; Persian Letters; separation of powers ensures freedom.

Rousseau

France/Switzerland; The Social Contract; liberty, equality, fraternity.

Thomas Paine

England/America; Common Sense; advocated for republic & independence.

Diderot

France; created the Encyclopedia to spread Enlightenment ideas.

Emilie du Chatelet

France; mathematician and physicist; collaborated with Voltaire.

Mary Wollstonecraft

England; Vindication of the Rights of Woman; women's rights and education.

Cesare Beccaria

Italy; argued for fair punishments and right to a fair trial.

Founding Fathers

John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin; built American democracy based on Enlightenment ideals.

Salons

Gatherings hosted mostly by women where Enlightenment ideas were shared; promoted female empowerment.

Cosmopolitanism

Idea that all humans belong to a single global community through shared reason and morality.

Literacy During the Enlightenment

People learned to read and write; spread of ideas through books, which were expensive.

Legacy of the Enlightenment

Inspired democratic revolutions, civil rights, scientific organizations, and individual freedoms.

Four Major Groups

Hebrews (equality under God), Greeks (democracy & philosophy), Romans (laws & justice), Church (education & morality).

Western Values

Democracy, individual rights, reason, rule of law; freedom & equality.

Countries in the West

United States, Germany, Great Britain, France.

NATO

Military alliance of Western countries (USA, Europe, Canada, Australia).

European Union (EU)

Political & economic union of Germany, France, Britain, etc.

Theory of the Other

West defined by who it opposes, not just shared ideas.

Country That Left the EU

Great Britain.

US-China Tensions

Competition over technology and Taiwan; the U.S. protects Taiwan to prevent attacks.