APES Midterm Study Guide

terrestrial (land) biomes

includes rainforests, tiagas, temperate deciduous forests, grasslands, deserts, and tundras

aquatic biomes

major biomes include rivers, lakes, and wetlands (all freshwater) and ocean zones

what defines biomes

annual temp. and avg. precipitation

threats to terrestrial biomes

warming climate causes biomes to shift locations

littoral zone

shallow water with emergent plants

limnetic zone

where light can reach, no rooted plants only phytoplankton

profundal zone

too deep for sunlight (no phots.)

benthic zone

murky bottom where inverts (bugs) live, nutrient-rich sediments

coral reef zone

warm shallow waters beyond the shoreline; most diverse biome on earth

intertidal zones

narrow bands of coastline between high and low ride, organisms must be adapted to survive crashing waves and direct sunlight

open ocean

low productivity/area as only algae and phytoplankton can survive in most of the ocean

threats to aquatic biomes

overfishing, pollution from runoff, and deforestation allowing more sediment to erode into bodies of water

carbon cycle

movement of molecules that contain carbon (CO2, glucose, CH4) between reservoirs

carbon sink

reservoir that takes in more carbon than it releases (ex. ocean, plants, forests, photosynthesis)

carbon source

reservoir that releases more carbon than it takes in (ex. fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, cellular respiration)

nitrogen cycle

movement of N containing molecules between reservoirs

nitrogen fixation

process of N2 gas being converted into useable ammonia or nitrate

assimilation

plants and animals taking in N and incorporating it into their body

ammonification

decomposers convert waste back into ammonia and return it to the soil

nitrification

conversion of ammonium into nitrate by soil bacteria

denitrification

conversion of N into gas and return to the atmostphere

phosphorus cycle

movement of P atoms and molecules between reservoirs

phosphorus sources

weathering of rock, wind and rain break down rock and phosphate is released and dissolved into water

assimilation and excretion/decomposition

P is absorbed by plant roots; animals assimilated by eating plants

hydrologic (water) cycle

movement of H2O (in different states) between reservoirs, energy from sun drives the H2O cycle, reservoirs include ocean, groundwater, and atmostphere

transpiration

water leaving a surface of a body of water

runoff and infiltration

precipitation (rain) either flows over earth's surface into a body of water (runoff) or trickles through soil down into groundwater aquifers (infiltration/percolation)

ecology

relations of organisms to one another and their physical surroundings

photosynthesis

plants, algae, phytoplankton, carbon sink because it removes carbon from atmosphere and stores carbon in glucose molecules

cellular respiration

done by plants and animals to release stored energy, uses O2 to break glucose down and release energy, carbon source because it releases CO2 into the atmosphere

trophic cascades

triggered when a top predator is added or removed from the ecosystem and causes population changes within the ecosystem because of it

biotic factors

everything living in an ecosystem (animals, plants)

abiotic factors

non-living things in an ecosystem (water, air, rocks)

10% rule

in trophic pyramids only about 10% of the energy from one level makes it to the next level; the other 90% is used by the organism and lost as heat

net primary productivity

also known as NPP; the amount of energy (biomass) leftover for consumers after plants have used some for respiration

gross primary productivity

also known as GPP; the total amount of sun energy that plants capture and convert (compare to total paycheck without taxes)

species richness

the total number of different species found in an ecosystem

eveness

a measure of how all the individual organisms in an ecosystem are balanced between the different species

higher biodiversity

usually caused by a higher ecosystem/population health

interspecific competition

occurs between individuals of the different species

intraspecific competition

occurs between individuals of the same species

predator adpations

could include sharp teeth, claws, quick moving

prey adaptations

camouflage, mimicry, defensive structures such as shells

mutualism

relationship that benefits both organisms

commensalism

relationship that benefits one organism and doesn't impact the other

parasitism

one organism lives on and feeds off another organism

primary succession

starts from bare rock in an area with no soil. Moss and lichen spores carried by wind grow directly on rocks, common on volcanoes and glacier retreats

secondary succession

starts from already established soil, in an area where a disturbance (fire/tornado) occurred

invasive species

animals or plants from another region that don't belong in their new environment

keystone species

strongly interacting species that have a large impact on their ecosystems relative to their abundance

generalist species

a species able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and use a variety of resources

specialist species

can only live in specific habitats, and eat specific food sources

rule of 70

the time it takes (in years) for a population to double is equal to 70 divided by the growth rate (doubling time)

k-selected species

have a high survivorship early in mid life due to high parental care, high survivorship in mid life due to large size and defensive behavior, rapid decrease in survivorship in late life due to old age, mostly mammals, have few offspring, slow pop. growth

r-selected species

have many offspring with little to no parental care, shorter lifespan, generally reproduce many times throughout lifespan, includes insects, fish, plants

density-dependent factors

factors that influence pop. growth based on the size of the population (ex. food, competition, habitat, water)

density-independent factors

factors that influence pop. growth (ex. natural disasters)

carrying capacity

the maximum number of individuals in a population that an ecosystem can support (based on line of resources)

demographic transition

a model showing how a nation's population, birth, and death rate are historically correlated when transitioning from agrarian to industrialized

watersheds

all of the land that drains into a specific body of water (river, lake, etc.), divided by ridges of land; vegetation, soil composition, and slope play a large role in how watersheds drain

human impacts on watersheds

nutrient pollution causes eutrophication (algae blooms): runoff causes excess nutrients to end up in water; endocrine disrupters (from sewage treatments), sediment pollution increases turbidity

O-horizon

organic; plant roots, dead leaves, and animal waste on top of soil, provided nutrients and limits H2O loss

A-horizon

topsoil, layer of hummus (decomposed organic matter) and minerals, most biological activity happens here (earthworms, soil microbes)

B-horizon

subsoil, lighter layer below topsoil, mostly made of minerals, with little to no organic matter, contains some nutrients

soil formation (from below)

weathering of parent material produces smaller, and smaller fragments that make up geological part of soil, sand, silt, and clay

soil formation (from above)

breakdown of organic matter, adds hummus to soil, erosion deposits soil particles from other areas adding to soil

sand

largest particles, highest porosity and permeability

silt

in between clay and sand

clay

smallest particle size, lowest porosity and least permeable

divergent plate boundary

plates move away from each other, rising magma plumes force plates apart, forms mid-oceanic ridges, volcanoes, seafloor spreading and rift valleys

convergent plate boundary

plates move towards each other, leads to subduction (one plate being forced beneath another), forms mountains, islands arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes

transform boundary

plates slide past each other in opposite directions, forms earthquakes

windward side

warm, moist air from ocean hits "windward" side of the mountain, rises, cools (condensing H2O vapor and causing rain) this leads to lush, green vegetation in the area

leeward side

dry air descends down "leeward" side of mountain, leads to air (dry) desert conditions

troposphere

change (weather), most dense layer, contains most of the atmosphere's gas molecules, temp. decreases as air gets further from warmth of earth's surface

stratosphere

less dense, ozone layer is found here, absorbs UV-B and UV-C rays, temp increases because top layer is warmed by UV rays

mesophere

middle, very low density, temp decreases because density decreases leaving fewer molecules to absorb sun

thermosphere

therm = hottest temp, absorbs harmful x-rays and UV radiation, northern lights appear here, temp increases due to highly energetic solar radiation

exosphere

outermost layer that merges with space, exit, no relationship between temp and altitude

el nino

caused by weakened trade winds that then reverse (west to east), warms equator current and brings heat and percip. to Americas, cooler drier upwelling off SA coast, high pressure in west pacific, low pressure in east specific

la nina

caused by stronger that normal trade winds (winds still blow east to west), increased upwelling off SA, cooler conditions, extra good fisheries, warmer and rainier than normal in Australia and SE asia

tragedy of the commons

individuals will use shared/public resources (must be public resource) in their own self interest, degrading (or overuse, deplete, or use up) them. Examples include overgrazing, overfishing, water and air pollution, overuse of groundwater

solutions for tragedy of the commons

private land ownership (individual or gov.), fees or taxes for use (ex. permits for grazing, logging, or fishing), taxes and fines

surface mining

removal of overburden to access ore near surface, methods include open pit, strip mining, mountaintop removal (which is especially damaging), and placer. Causes erosion, habitat loss, stream turbidity, increases particulate matter in air

mine reclamation

the process of restoring land to the original state after mining has finished; fill in empty mine, restore contours and land, return topsoil, remove tailings, replant native plants

acid mine drainage

one environmental impact of mining; rainwater reacts with sulfur-containing rock to form toxic sulfuric acid, lowers pH of water, making toxic metals like mercury and aluminum more soluble in water sources (this kills aquatic org.)

clearcutting

cutting down all the trees in a specific area, usually so the land can be used for agriculture

soil erosion

caused by loss of stabilizing structure, removes soil and nutrients

increased soil and stream temp

loss of tree shade causes temp to increase, warm water = less oxygen

flooding and landslides

caused by logging machinery compacts soil, increased sun dries soil, decreased water holding capacity

CAFO

concentrated animal feeding operation; create massive amounts of waste that must be stored in manure lagoons that can be flooded by heavy rain and contaminate nearby water

monocropping

growing one single species of crop, this increases soil erosion (crops are harvested all at once and soil is left bare) and decreases habitat diversity for species in the area

tiling

mixing and breaking up soil with machines, increases erosion by loosening topsoil, loss of organic matter and topsoil nutrients overtime, increases pollutants and sediments in nearby water

slash and burn

clearing land for agriculture by cutting trees and burning them, has the same negative impacts as clearcutting and releases CO2 into the air

free range grazing

alternative to CAFOs; positives: no need for antibiotics, doesn't require production of corn feed for animals, waste is dispersed over land naturally; negatives: more expensive to consumer

overgrazing

can cause desertification: soil is so compacted it can't hold water, can be solved by rotational grazing