energy and the environment

What is the source of the organic matter that forms oil?

Organic matter comes from fine-grained clastic sediment like shale, rich in organic material (like plankton and algae remains), especially in deep ocean environments where fine particles settle.

What is the source rock for oil? In what kind of environment does the source rock form? What about deltas?

Source rock: Shale. Environment: Deep marine settings with low energy and high organic content. Deltas: Also form shale via fine-grained suspended materials; floodplains and deltas contribute to shale formation too.

Order the following rocks based on distance from their source, from furthest to closest: siltstone, shale, conglomerate, sandstone.

Conglomerate – forms near source (foothills, alluvial fans). Sandstone – medium transport (deserts, nearshore). Siltstone – transported (floodplains, deltas). Shale – furthest, suspended material settles in deep ocean.

What is the difference between chemical and clastic sediment?

Clastic sediment: Made from fragments of other rocks; classified by grain size (e.g., sandstone, shale). Chemical sediment: Formed from mineral precipitation out of solution; classified by composition (e.g., limestone, gypsum).

What kind does limestone form in?

Forms in shallow ocean environments. It’s a chemical sediment made of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).

What is the cause for long-term sea level change? What about short-term?

Long-term: Tectonic plate movements and continental shifts. Short-term: Melting glaciers, ice caps, and thermal expansion of water.

What type of environment does gypsum form? What is gypsum made of?

Environment: Hyperarid, shallow seas and lakes. Made of: Calcium sulfate dihydrate – CaSO₄·H₂O.

Sequence of rocks: Shale, limestone, sandstone, conglomerate (bottom to top) — transgression or regression?

This represents a regression – sea level falling over time. Nearshore/coarser materials are deposited later (on top), as shoreline moves seaward.

During what geologic period did New Mexico oil form? What about the gas?

Mostly Oil in New Mexico’s Permian Basin formed during the Permian Period, San Juan basin (Cretaceous age) primarily has formed.

How does fracking work?

Fracturing rock layers using high-pressure fluid to release oil/gas trapped in shale or other tight formations. Uses water, sand, and chemicals to prop open fractures.

Describe one global, one regional, and one local environmental impact associated with the extraction and use of oil and gas.

Global: Climate change due to CO₂ emissions from burning fossil fuels. Regional: Air and water pollution from large-scale oil field operations. Local: Water contamination and earthquakes from fracking near populated area.

What is hydraulic fracturing (fracking)?

Hydraulic fracturing, commonly known as fracking, is a method that utilizes a high-pressure blend of water, sand, and chemicals to fracture rock formations, thereby releasing trapped natural gas or oil.

What is the maximum depth for horizontally drilled wells in fracking operations?

Horizontally drilled wells can reach depths of up to 10,600 feet beneath the earth's surface.

What purpose does sand serve in the fracking fluid mixture?

Sand particles are essential in maintaining the open state of the fractures (fissures) that are induced, facilitating the flow of natural gas from the rock into the well.

How is water handled after being used in the fracking process?

The water that is recovered during the process, known as flowback, is kept in open pits before being transported to a treatment facility for recycling or disposing.

What type of logistics support is involved in delivering water for fracking operations?

Typically, about 200 tanker trucks are necessary to transport the required water to the fracking site.

What is the procedure once natural gas enters the well?

The natural gas is collected and transported through pipelines to reach the market.

What is the formula for calculating force?

The force can be expressed as Force = Mass × Acceleration (F = m × a), with the unit of measurement being Newton (N = kg·m/s²).

How is pressure calculated using force?

Pressure is defined mathematically as Pressure = Force / Area, with the unit being Pascal (Pa = N/m²).

How do you compute energy from force?

Energy is computed using the formula Energy = Force × Distance (E = F × d), with the unit being Joules (J = N·m).

What is the formula to determine power?

Power can be calculated as Power = Energy / Time (P = E/t), with the unit of power being Watt (W = J/s).

How is electric energy consumption typically quantified?

Electric energy usage is generally measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), where 1 kWh is equivalent to 3.6 × 10⁶ Joules. (3,600,000)

What are a few standard unit conversions?

Some common conversions include:

• 1 inch = 2.54 cm
• 1 calorie = 4.187 J
• 1 BTU = 1055 J
• 1 horsepower = 745.7 W.

What is the energy output (in kWh) of an 8.6 kW solar array over 30 days, assuming 6 hours of sunlight per day?

The energy output can be calculated as: 8.6 kW × 6 h/day × 30 days = 1548 kWh.

Convert 1548 kWh into joules.

To convert energy from kWh to joules: 1548 kWh × 3.6 × 10⁶ J = 5.57 × 10⁹ J.

If a Tesla consumes 0.25 kWh per mile, how far can it travel with 1548 kWh?

With an energy consumption of 0.25 kWh per mile, a Tesla can drive: 1548 kWh / 0.25 kWh/mile = 6,192 miles.

Which element has the highest binding energy per nucleon?

Iron-56 (⁵⁶Fe) has the highest binding energy per nucleon.

What does the binding energy curve illustrate about nuclear reactions like fission and fusion?

The binding energy curve indicates that energy is released when light nuclei fuse or when heavy nuclei undergo fission due to having higher binding energy per nucleon.

Calculate the energy released from fusing two moles of deuterium into ⁴He.

The mass deficit is 0.0017717 AMU. The energy released is calculated as:

• Energy: 0.0017717 × 6.023×10²³ × 931.5 = 1.0282×10²⁴ MeV,
• Convert to joules: 1.0282×10²⁴ × 1.602×10⁻¹³ = 1.647×10¹¹ J,
• In kWh: approximately 45,760 kWh.

Why is the mass of ¹²C lower than the combined mass of 6 protons and 6 neutrons?

This is attributed to binding energy; a mass deficit of 0.095651 AMU corresponds to an energy release of 89.1 MeV.

What is the well-known equation linking mass to energy?

The famous equation is E = mc².

What is the formula for kinetic energy?

The formula for kinetic energy is KE = ½mv².

What is the formula for gravitational potential energy?

Gravitational potential energy can be expressed as PE = mgh (mass × gravity × height).

What are the two main types of potential energy?

The two types of potential energy include:

1. Gravitational (for example, hydro power)
2. Elastic (such as in springs).

What type of energy is produced from redox reactions in batteries?

Redox reactions in batteries generate electromagnetic energy.

What occurs to the element that loses electrons during redox reactions?

The element that loses electrons undergoes oxidation.

What happens to the element that gains electrons in redox reactions?

The element that gains electrons is reduced.

What is binding energy?

Binding energy refers to the energy needed to disassemble a nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons, and it also represents the energy released during the formation of the nucleus.

What is the formula to calculate binding energy from mass defect?

The binding energy can be calculated using: E = Δm × c², where Δm is the mass defect (in kg or AMU) and c is the speed of light (3.00 × 10⁸ m/s).

What is the shortcut to determine binding energy in MeV using AMU?

To find binding energy in MeV, use: E (MeV) = mass defect (AMU) × 931.5 MeV/AMU.

How do you calculate the mass defect (Δm)?

The mass defect can be calculated with: Δm = [# of protons × mass of ¹H] + [# of neutrons × mass of neutron] − mass of actual nucleus.

What is the mass of a proton (¹H)?

The mass of a proton is 1.00727647 AMU.

What is the mass of a neutron?

The mass of a neutron is 1.008665 AMU.

How is binding energy per nucleon defined?

Binding energy per nucleon is determined by dividing the total binding energy by the number of nucleons, allowing comparisons of nuclear stability.

What is the binding energy of ⁴He nucleus?
(2 protons, 2 neutrons; actual mass = 4.002603 AMU)

• Proton mass = 2 × 1.007276 = 2.014552
• Neutron mass = 2 × 1.008665 = 2.01733
• Combined mass = 4.031882
• Mass defect = 4.031882 − 4.002603 = 0.029279 AMU
• Binding energy = 0.029279 × 931.5 = 27.27 MeV
• Binding energy per nucleon = 27.27 / 4 = 6.82 MeV/nucleon

What is the binding energy of ¹²C?
(6 protons, 6 neutrons; actual mass = 12.00000 AMU)

• Proton mass = 6 × 1.007276 = 6.043656
• Neutron mass = 6 × 1.008665 = 6.05199
• Combined = 12.09565
• Mass defect = 12.09565 − 12.00000 = 0.09565 AMU
• Binding energy = 0.09565 × 931.5 = 89.06 MeV
• Binding energy per nucleon = 89.06 / 12 = 7.42 MeV/nucleon

A reaction: 2 ²H → ⁴He. Total mass of ²H atoms = 4.0282 AMU; ⁴He mass = 4.0264 AMU. Find energy released.

• Mass defect = 4.0282 − 4.0264 = 0.0018 AMU
• Binding energy = 0.0018 × 931.5 = 1.68 MeV

What are the two main types of energy?

1. Mechanical Energy
2. Electromagnetic (or Electronic) Energy

What are the two types of mechanical energy?

1. Kinetic Energy
2. Potential Energy

What is kinetic energy?

The energy of motion. Any moving object has kinetic energy.
Formula: KE = ½ mv²
Units: kg·m²/s² = Joules (J)

What is potential energy?

Stored energy due to position or structure. It has two main types: gravitational and elastic.

What is gravitational potential energy?

Energy stored due to height above the ground.
Formula: PE = mgh
(m = mass, g = gravity, h = height)

What is elastic potential energy?

Energy stored in stretched or compressed materials, like springs or rubber bands.

What is electromagnetic or electronic energy?

Energy from the movement or flow of electrons, often through oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions.

What is an oxidation-reduction reaction (redox)?

A chemical reaction where electrons are transferred from one substance to another.

What happens during oxidation?

The electron donor loses electrons – it is oxidized.

What happens during reduction?

The electron acceptor gains electrons – it is reduced.

What is an example of energy from a redox reaction?

A battery! In an acid battery, one element donates electrons (oxidized), and the other accepts them (reduced), producing electric energy.

How does a battery produce electricity?

Through chemical reactions: oxidation at one terminal, reduction at the other, creating a flow of electrons (electric current).

What does the binding energy per nucleon curve represent?

It plots the average energy required to remove a nucleon from a nucleus against the atomic mass number (A), illustrating nuclear stability across different elements.

How does the binding energy per nucleon vary across elements?

• Light Elements: Low binding energy per nucleon.
  • Iron (Fe): Peak binding energy per nucleon, indicating maximum stability.
  • Heavy Elements: Decreasing binding energy per nucleon, leading to reduced stability.

Why is energy released during nuclear fission?

Splitting heavy nuclei like uranium-235 into lighter nuclei releases energy because the resulting nuclei have higher binding energies per nucleon, indicating greater stability.

Why is energy released during nuclear fusion?

Combining light nuclei, such as deuterium, to form helium releases energy as the resulting nucleus has a higher binding energy per nucleon, indicating increased stability.

What is the binding energy per nucleon for iron-56 (⁵⁶Fe)?

Approximately 8.79 MeV, representing one of the most stable nuclei.

How does the binding energy per nucleon curve explain stellar nucleosynthesis?

Stars synthesize elements up to iron through fusion, as elements lighter than iron release energy when fused, while heavier elements require energy input, influencing stellar lifecycles.

How does the binding energy per nucleon curve relate to nuclear stability?

Nuclei with higher binding energy per nucleon are more stable, requiring more energy to disassemble, while those with lower binding energies are less stable and more prone to decay or fission.

What is nuclear fission?

Nuclear fission is a process where the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei, accompanied by the release of energy.

What is nuclear fusion?

Nuclear fusion involves two light atomic nuclei combining to form a single heavier nucleus, releasing massive amounts of energy in the process.

How does nuclear fission release energy?

When a heavy nucleus splits, it produces smaller nuclei and additional neutrons. The total mass of these products is less than the original nucleus; the mass difference is converted into energy according to Einstein’s equation E=mc².

Where does nuclear fusion occur naturally?

Fusion occurs naturally in stars, including our sun, where immense pressure and temperature facilitate the merging of light nuclei.

What is a potential benefit of nuclear fusion over fission?

Fusion offers the prospect of a nearly limitless and cleaner energy source, as it produces less long-lived radioactive waste compared to fission.

What is the "normal geotherm" and how does it differ from an elevated geotherm?

Normal geotherm follows the average temperature gradient in non-volcanic regions (~25°C/km). An elevated geotherm occurs in tectonically active areas where heat flow is higher.

What are the three primary sources of heat within the Earth?

1. Primordial Heat from the formation of the Earth.
2. Heat of Crystallization from the inner core.
3. Radioactive Decay in the Earth's upper crust.

How does the heat transfer occur in geothermal systems?

Heat transfer in geothermal systems occurs primarily through conduction in the lithosphere, where heat moves from warmer to cooler regions.

What is the significance of the geothermal gradient in the Earth's crust?

The geothermal gradient is the rate at which temperature increases with depth. In the upper continental crust, this gradient is typically 25°C/km due to the presence of radioactive elements.

How do you calculate the amount of heat in a geothermal system?

Using the formula:
Heat = ρ * Cp * V * ΔT
where ρ is density, Cp is heat capacity, V is volume, and ΔT is the temperature change.

What is the silica geothermometer and how is it used?

The silica geothermometer calculates temperature by determining the concentration of silicic acid in geothermal fluids, using equations specific to amorphous silica and quartz.

What factors determine the geothermal heat flow in a region?

Geothermal heat flow is highest in tectonically active areas like rifts and volcanic zones. Regions like the Basin & Range have the highest heat flow.

What is microwave drilling in geothermal energy?

Microwave drilling is a method that uses microwave energy to bypass the limits of traditional rotary drilling, enabling geothermal energy generation even in low-gradient regions.

How would you calculate the temperature at a specific depth using the heat flow equation?

Use the formula:
T2 = (q * z) / K + T1,
where q is the heat flow, z is the depth, K is the thermal conductivity, and T1 is the surface temperature.

What is a geotherm?

A geotherm represents the variation in temperature with depth inside the Earth.

What is a geothermal gradient?

It is the rate at which temperature rises with depth, usually around 25°C/km in the upper continental crust.

What is primordial heat?

Heat that remains from the Earth’s formation, resulting from gravitational collapse and early collisions.

What is the heat of crystallization?

The heat released as the Earth’s solid inner core develops at the expense of the liquid outer core.

What is a heat conduction equation?

An equation for calculating heat flow through a material: q = \frac{K \cdot \Delta T}{z}.

What is thermal conductivity (K)?

A measure of a rock’s capacity to conduct heat, expressed in W/(m·°C), with typical values ranging from 1 to 3.5 W/m·°C, depending on rock type.

What is heat flow (q)?

The rate of heat transfer through a surface, measured in W/m².

What is ambient geothermal energy?

Geothermal energy that can be harnessed from areas with normal heat flow, facilitated by developments such as mm-wave (microwave) drilling technologies.

What is mm-wave drilling?

A technique that employs microwave energy to drill through rock, thereby overcoming the limitations of traditional rotary drilling and enabling geothermal access anywhere.

What is the silica geothermometer?

A method for estimating underground water temperature by analyzing the concentration of dissolved silicic acid.

What is silicic acid (H₄SiO₄)?

A compound formed when silica (SiO₂) reacts with water; its concentration is crucial for calculating geothermal temperatures.

What is an equilibrium constant (K) in the silica geothermometer?

A value representing the ratio of silicic acid concentration to solid silica and water, used for temperature estimation.

What is heat capacity (Cₚ)?

The quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of material by 1°C.

What is the formula for total heat stored in a rock volume?

Q = \rho \cdot C_p \cdot V \cdot \Delta T, where:
\rho = density (kg/m³)
Cₚ = specific heat
V = volume (m³)
ΔT = temperature change (K)

What civilization used geothermal heat for central heating systems?

The Ancient Romans.

When and where was the first U.S. district geothermal heating system installed?

In 1892, in Boise, Idaho.

Where was the first geothermal power plant built?

Larderello, Italy, in 1904, utilizing dry steam.

What is The Geysers and why is it important?

A geothermal complex in California, home to the first successful U.S. geothermal electric plant (1960) and now the largest in the world.

Which country is the world’s largest geothermal energy producer?

The United States.

What are examples of direct-use geothermal applications?

Applications include heating homes, utilizing hot springs, supporting greenhouses, crop drying, and milk pasteurization.