APES CH 13, 20, and 15 Test Review

annuals

annuals

food crops whose seeds must be replanted each year.

Industrialized agriculture/High-input agriculture

large amounts of fossil fuel energy, water,commercial fertilizers, and pesticides to produce huge quantities of single crops(monocultures)or livestock animals for sale.

Plantation agriculture

a form of industrialized agriculture practiced primarily in tropical developing countries, grows cash crops such as: bananas, coffee, and cacao, mostly for sale in developed countries.

Traditional subsistence agriculture

produces only enough crops or livestock for a family's survival.

Traditional intensive agriculture

farmers increase their inputs of human and draft labor, fertilizer, and water to get a higher yield per area of cultivated land to produce enough food to feed their families and sell for income.

first green revolution

(1)developing and planting monocultures of selectively bred or genetically engineered high-yield varieties of key crops such as rice, wheat, and corn with emphasis on shifting more of plant growth to seeds. (2) lavishing fertilizer, pesticides, and water on crops to produce high yields. and (3) often increasing the intensity and frequency of cropping. This approach dramatically increased crop yields in most developed countries between 1950 and 1970.

second green revolution

when fast-growing dwarf varieties of rice and wheat, specially bred for tropical and subtropical climates, were introduced into several developing countries.

interplanting

simultaneously growing several crops on the same plot.

Polyvarietal cultivation

where a plot is planted with several varieties of the same crop.

intercropping

two or more different crops are grown at the same time on a plot

agroforrestry or alley cropping

crops and trees are planted together

polyculture

a more complex form of intercropping in which many different plants maturing at various times are planted together

undernourished

people who cannot grow or buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs

chronically undernourished

people who receive less than 90% of their minimum daily calorie intake of food on a long term basis.

Seriously undernourished

people giving less than 80% of their minimum daily calorie intake.

malnutrition

deficiencies of protein and key micro nutrients, such as various vitamins and minerals that are needed in small quantities.

Marasmus

a nutritional deficiency disease that occurs from a diet which is low in calories and protein

Kwashiorkor

a severe protein deficiencies occurring in infants and children ages 1-3, usually after an arrival of a new baby which deprives of breast milk.

Fisheries

Concentrations of particular aquatic species sustainable for commercial harvesting in a given ocean area or inland body of water.

aquaculture

fish and shellfish are raised for food; supplies about 20% of the world's commercial fish harvest

fish farming

involves cultivating fish in a controlled environment, often a pond or tank, and harvesting them when they reach their desired size

fish ranching

holding anadromous species such as salmon (that live part of their lives in fresh water and part in salt water) in captivity for the first few years of their lives (usually in fenced areas or floating cages in coastal lagoons and estuaries), releasing them, and then harvesting the adults when they return to spawn

microlivestock

Edible insects that contain an amount of protein, vitamins, and minerals relative to body size.

cross breeding

using artificial selection to develop genetically improved varieties of crop strains and livestock.

genetic engineering or gene splicing

insertion of an alien gene into an organism to give it a beneficial genetic trait

deferred grazing

rotation of livestock on a regular schedule from one fenced area to another so that over a 6 year period each area is protected from grazing for 2 years to allow recovery.

overgrazing

Destruction of vegetation when too many animals feed too long and exceed the carrying capacity of a rangeland or pasture area.

undergrazing

Reduction of the net primary productivity of grassland vegetation and grass cover from absence of grazing for long periods (at least 5 years).

trawler fishing

used to catch fish and shellfish that live on or near the ocean floor. It involves dragging a funnel-shaped net held open at the neck along the ocean bottom; it is weighed down with chains or metal plates. This scrapes up almost everything that lies on the ocean floor and often destroys bottom habitats. The large mesh of the net allows most of the small fish to escape but can capture and kill other species such as seals and endangered and threatened sea turtles.

purse-seine fishing

an effective fishing method for species that school near the surface (tuna, mackeral, anchovies); a large net is encircled around the targeted catch, after which the bottom of the net is drawn tight like the strings of a bag, thus confining the catch in the net. (Think Nemo..."just keep swimming.")

longlining

fishing vessels put out lines (up to 80 miles) that contain thousands of baited hooks. This hooks unwanted aquatic animals (pilot whales, dolphins, sea turtles, albatross) along with the swordfish, tuna, and sharks

drift net fishing

huge nets hang 50 feet below the surface of the water and can be 34 miles long. This leads to overfishing of the desired species and traps many dolphins, porpoises and seals. These have been banned since 1992 by the UN but the compliance is voluntary so it is rarely followed.

Pesticides

Chemicals to kill organisms we consider undesirable.

Insecticides

Type of pesticide that is used to kill insects.

Herbicides

Type of pesticide that is used to kill weeds.

Fungicides

Type of pesticide that is used to kill fungus.

Nematocides

Type of pesticide that kills flat worms.

Rodenticides

Type of pesticide used to kills rats or mice.

Coevolution

The result of dynamic interactions between predator and prey species.

First-generation pesticides

Natural substances that are used by plant species to defend themselves from insects.

Second-generation pesticides

Synthetic organic chemicals for use as pesticides.

Broad-Spectrum Agents

Pesticides that are toxic to many species

Selective-Spectrum Agents (Narrow)

Pesticides that are effective against a narrowly defined group of organisms.

Persistence

The length of time that pesticides remain deadly in the environment.

Genetic Resistance

The development of immunity to pesticides through natural selection.

Pesticide Treadmill

The trend in which farmers pay more and more for pest control programs that are less and less effective. Caused by genetic resistance.

Tolerance Level

The amount of toxic pesticide residue that can legally remain on the crop when the consumer eats it.

Bacillus Thuringensis

A microbe, or common soil bacterium that is a registered pesticide sold commercially as a dry powder. Releases a protein that disrupts the digestion system of pests.

Pheromone

Hormone released by a female insect species that is ready to mate; chemical sex attractant.

Aqua Heat

A machine that sprays boiling water on crops to kill weeds and insects.

Steam Pasteurization

In which meat carcasses are suspended and passed through a cabinet, where they are blasted with steam to kill surface microbes.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

An approach in which each crop and its pests are evaluated as parts of an ecological system. Then a control program is developed that includes a mix of cultivation and biological and chemical methods applied in proper sequence and with the proper timing

pyrethrum

is a natural pesticide obtained from the heads of chrysanthemum flower.

rotenone

extracted from the roots of various tropical forest legumes. These first-generation pesticides were mainly natural chemicals or botanical borrowed from plants that have been defending themselves against insects eating them and herbivores grazing on them.

chlorinated hydrocarbons

are synthetic organic insecticides that inhibit nerve membrane ion transport and block nerve signal transmission ex: DDT, chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, toxaphene, paradichlorobenzene (moth ballls) and lindane

organophosphates

modern synthetic pesticides that break down faster than chlorinated hydrocarbons but are far more toxic for short-term contact such as Malathion, parathion; Most commonly used insecticide in U.S., WWI chemical warfare

botanicals

derived from plants. These are more pest specific and easily degrade in the environment and have a low toxicity level. Nicotine, pyrethrum, and rotenone are examples. Botanicals are easily degraded by microorganisms and so do not persist in the environment.

contact chemicals

Applied directly to plants, and cause rapid cell membrane deterioration. Paraquat- used as a defoliant. Paraquat is toxic to humans but does not bioaccumulate.

systemic chemicals

taken up the roots and foliage of plants, are of low to moderate toxicity to mammals and birds. Some are highly toxic to fishes, and do not have a tendency to bioaccumulate.

soil sterilants

Diphenamid- render the soil in which the plants live toxic. These compounds do not bioaccumulate and have a low toxicity in animals.

carbamates

They are broad-spectrum insecticides and are not as toxic as organophosphates to humans though they do show broad, non-target toxicity. Sevin dust is an example.

primary oil recovery

drilling a well and pumping out the oil that flows by gravity into the bottom of the well

secondary oil recovery

after the flowing oil is removed, water is injected into nearby wells to force some of the remaining heavy oil to the surface

tertiary oil recovery

Removal of some of the heavy oil left in an oil well after other recovery processes. Involves injecting steam into a secondary well to force the remaining oil to the recovery well.

refinery

the place where crude oil is heated and distilled in gigantic columns to separate it into liquid components with different boiling points such as naphtha, diesel oil, heating oil, aviation fuel, and gasoline

petrochemicals

the products of oil distillations that are used as raw materials

kerogen

A shale oil. The heavy waxy mixture of hydrocarbon compounds, slow-flowing, dark-brown oil formed when the vapor is condensed.

bitumen

A part of tar sand. a mixture of clay, sand, water, and oil removed by surface mining. Creates a gooey, black, high-sulfur heavy oil.

natural gas

a mixture of 50-90% by volume of methane, CH4, the simplest hydrocarbon; smaller amounts of heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as ethane c2h6,

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

Happens when a natural gas field is tapped. How propane and butane gases are removed, then they're stored in pressurized tanks for use mostly in rural areas not served by natural gas pipelines.

liquefied natural gas (LNG)

At a very low temperature of -184 degrees Celsius, natural gas is converted to this. It is a highly flammable liquid that can be shipped to other countries in refrigerated tanker ships.

Coal

A solid, rocklike fossil fuel; it formed in several stages as the buried remains of ancient swamp plants that died during the Carboniferous period (a geologic era that ended 286 million years ago) were subjected to intense pressure and heat over millions of years. Mostly carbon with smaller amounts of water and sulfur.

Subsurface mining

characterized by tunnels and shafts. Very labor intensive and is one of the world's most dangerous activities.

Surface mining

When resources are close to the surface, this is used. Bulldozers and huge earth-moving machines remove overburden to recover mineral deposits.

Overburden

Excess soil and rock removed from mineral deposits to extract them.

Area strip mining

Used on fairly flat terrain where mineral deposits are shallow. An earthmover strips away the overburden, and a power shovel digs a cut to remove the mineral deposit. After removal of the mineral, the trench is filled with overburden, and a new cut is made parallel to the previous one. The process is repeated over the entire site.

Contour strip mining

Used on hilly or mountainous terrain., Form of surface mining used on hilly or mountainous terrain. A power shovel cuts a series of terraces into the side of a hill. An earthmover removes the overburden, and a power shovel extracts the coal, with the overburden from each new terrace dumped onto the one below.

Open-pit mining

Thick beds of coal (or other minerals) near the surface are removed by digging a deep pit to get them out.

Fluidized-bed combustion

new method developed to burn coal more cleanly and efficiently by using air jets at the base of the furnace and added crushed limestone from above to nuetralize Sulfur addmissions.

Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG)

What solid coal can be converted into. By coal gasification, converted into hydrogen gas, or into a liquid fuel such as methanol or synthetic gasoline by coal liquefaction. These are synfuels that can be transported by pipeline.

Light-Water Reactors (LWRs)

Reactors using ordinary water as coolant. They produce 85% of the world's nuclear generated electricity (100% in the US).

Core

35,000-40,000 long, thin, fuel rods, packed into assemblies.

Control Rods

moved in and out of the reactor core to absorb neutrons and thus regulate the rate of fission and amount of power the reactor produces

Moderator

slows down the neutrons emitted by the fission process so they have near elastic collisions with U-238 but can still fission U235 so chain reactions can be kept going.

Pressurized water reactors

Water in the reactor core is not allowed to boil and instead is kept under high pressure to allow the coolant to reach higher temperatures.

Coolant

usually water, circulates through the reactor's core to remove heat (so they don't melt) and to produce steam for generating electricity

Decommissioned

life span of nuclear power plants is typically about 40 years; most parts of power plant must be taken apart and disposed of as radioactive waste since they have absorbed radioactive energy for so many years

Low-Level radioactive wastes

give off small amounts of ionizing radiation and must be stored safely for 100-500 years until they don't pose an unacceptable risk to public health and safety

High-Level radioactive wastes

give off large amounts of ionizing radiation for a short time and small amounts for a long time typically for 10,000 to 240,000 years

Immediate dismantling

method proposed to decommission nuclear power and nuclear weapon plants. Materials from plant must be as high radioactive waste materials in high-level nuclear waste facilities (that still don't exist)

Mothballing

Putting up a barrier and setting up a 24 hour security system and then dismantling the nuclear power system.

Entombment

Covering the reactor with reinforced concrete and putting up a barrier to keep out intruders for several thousand years.

Breeder Nuclear Fission Reactors

Generate more nuclear fuel than they consume by converting non-fissionable uranium-238 into fissionable plutonium-239.

gangue

waste rock that must be removed before a mineral can be used

tailings

Rock and other waste materials removed as impurities when waste mineral material is separated from the metal in an ore.

smelting

The process by which ore is melted to separate the useful metal from other elements.

cyanide heap leaching

Level entire mountains and then use a highly toxic chemical to separate gold from the waste ore.

depletion time

The time it takes to use a certain fraction, usually 80%, of the known or estimated supply of a nonrenewable resource at an assumed rate of use. Finding and extracting the remaining 20% usually costs more than it is worth.

reserve to production ratio

The number of years that proven reserves of a particular nonrenewable mineral will last at current annual production rates

acid mine drainage

Pollution caused when sulfuric acid and dangerous dissolved materials such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium wash from coal and metal mines into nearby lakes and streams.