zoology mistakes in biology

🔹 Organic Acids Produced by Microbes

Microorganism	Acid Produced	Type
Aspergillus niger	Citric acid	Fungus
Acetobacter aceti	Acetic acid	Bacterium
Clostridium butylicum	Butyric acid	Bacterium
Lactobacillus	Lactic acid	Bacterium

🔹 Alcohol Production

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast) → Used in commercial production of ethanol.

🔹 Enzymes from Microbes

Enzyme	Use
Lipases	Used in detergents to remove oily stains from clothes.
Pectinases & Proteases	Used to clarify bottled fruit juices.

🔹 Therapeutic Bioactive Molecules

1. Streptokinase

   • Produced by: Streptococcus (genetically modified)

   • Use: Works as a clot buster, removes clots in heart attack patients.

2. Cyclosporin A

   • Produced by: Trichoderma polysporum (fungus)

   • Use: Acts as an immunosuppressive agent in organ transplant patients.

3. Statins

   • Produced by: Monascus purpureus (yeast)

   • Use: Lowers blood cholesterol by competitively inhibiting cholesterol synthesis enzyme.

🔹 Definition

• Gymnos = naked, Sperma = seed

• Ovules are not enclosed by an ovary wall → remain exposed before & after fertilisation

• Seeds formed are naked (not enclosed in fruits)

🔹 General Characteristics

Feature	Description
Habit	Medium to tall trees or shrubs
Example	Sequoia (Giant Redwood) – one of the tallest trees in the world

🔹 Root System

• Generally tap root

• Mycorrhizal roots: Pinus (fungus association)

• Coralloid roots: Cycas (with N₂-fixing cyanobacteria)

🔹 Stem

Type	Example
Unbranched	Cycas
Branched	Pinus, Cedrus

🔹 Leaves

Type	Features
Simple/Compound	Both types present
Pinnate Leaves	In Cycas, persist for years
Conifer Leaves	Needle-like → reduced surface area
Adaptations	Thick cuticle + sunken stomata → reduces water loss
Survival	Adapted to extreme temp, wind, humidity

🔹 Heterospory

• Gymnosperms are heterosporous
  → Produce two types of haploid spores:
  ✅ Microspores (male)
  ✅ Megaspores (female)

Type	Structure & Function
Microsporangiate / Male Strobilus	Has microsporophylls with microsporangia → produces microspores
Macrosporangiate / Female Strobilus	Has megasporophylls with megasporangia (ovules) → produces megaspores

Male Gametophyte (Pollen Grain)

🔹

• Microspore develops into pollen grain

• Highly reduced male gametophyte

• Develops within microsporangia

• Released and carried by wind (anemophily) to ovule

🔹 Female Gametophyte

• Megaspore mother cell (in nucellus) → undergoes meiosis

• Forms 4 megaspores, only one functional

• Develops into multicellular female gametophyte

• Bears 2 or more archegonia

• Retained within megasporangium (ovule)

🔹 Pollination and Fertilisation

1. Pollen grain lands near micropyle of ovule

2. Pollen tube grows toward archegonia

3. Releases male gametes near mouth of archegonia

4. Fertilisation → Zygote → Embryo

5. Ovule → Seed (naked)

🔹 Plant Type Examples

Plant	Cone Type
Pinus	Monoecious (both cones on same tree)
Cycas	Dioecious (male & female cones on separate trees)

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Key Difference from Bryophytes & Pteridophytes

• No independent gametophyte

• Both male & female gametophytes are dependent on sporophyte and remain within sporangia

bryophytes

🌿 General Features

Feature	Description
🌍 Habitat	Moist, damp, shaded areas (hills, streams, forests)
🧬 Dominant Generation	Haploid Gametophyte (produces gametes)
🌱 Body Plan	Thalloid (not differentiated into true root/stem/leaves)
🧫 Attachment	Rhizoids (unicellular/multicellular; not true roots)
🔬 Cell Wall	Cellulose (plant-like)
💧 Reproduction	Sexual reproduction requires water

🍃 Sexual Reproduction

Structure	Function
♂ Antheridium	Male sex organ; produces biflagellate antherozoids 🏊‍♂
♀ Archegonium	Female sex organ; flask-shaped, produces one egg
⚡ Fertilisation	In water: antherozoid swims → fuses with egg → zygote
🌱 Zygote develops	Into a sporophyte (diploid) — stays attached to gametophyte
🌾 Sporophyte	Meiosis → haploid spores → germinate into gametophytes again

🧠 Bryophyte Life Cycle Trick:

GAMetes → ZYGote → SPOROphyte → SPORES → back to GAMetophyte!
(G-Z-S-S-G) 🔁

🌍 Ecological and Economic Importance

✅ Pioneer Species: First to colonise bare rocks (with lichens)
✅ Soil Formation: Breaks rocks → makes soil
✅ Water Retention: Especially Sphagnum → absorbs water like a sponge!
✅ Prevents Soil Erosion: Dense mats cushion rain impact
✅ Peat Formation: Sphagnum forms peat (used as fuel & packing)
✅ Food Source: Some mosses → food for herbivores & birds

1. Why are bryophytes called amphibians of the plant kingdom?
A. Because they reproduce asexually in water
B. Because they require water for photosynthesis
C. Because they live in water and land
D. Because they live on land but require water for sexual reproduction

✅ Answer: D
🧠 Trick: Amphibians need water to reproduce—so do bryophytes!

2. Which structure in bryophytes is diploid and not free-living?
A. Archegonium
B. Antheridium
C. Gametophyte
D. Sporophyte

✅ Answer: D
💡 Hint: Sporophyte depends on gametophyte.

3. In bryophytes, meiosis occurs in:
A. Antheridium
B. Archegonium
C. Zygote
D. Sporophyte

✅ Answer: D

4. Which of these bryophytes is commercially valuable for water retention and packaging?
A. Riccia
B. Marchantia
C. Polytrichum
D. Sphagnum

✅ Answer: D
💡 Trick: "Sphagnum sponge" = water-absorbing moss.

5. Which of the following is the main generation in bryophytes?
A. Sporophyte
B. Zygote
C. Gametophyte
D. Embryo
✅

Answer: C

Gametophyte is the dominant generation in bryophytes, responsible for the production of gametes.

Assertion (A): Antherozoids in bryophytes are non-motile.
Reason (R): Bryophytes do not require water for fertilization.

✅ Answer: D (Both are false)
🧠 Note: Antherozoids are motile and do need water.

Q9. Which statement about bryophytes is correct?
A. Zygote undergoes meiosis immediately after fertilization.
B. Sporophyte is haploid.
C. Rhizoids may be unicellular or multicellular.
D. All bryophytes have vascular tissues.

✅ Answer: C

Q8. Identify the incorrect statement:
A. Bryophytes have true stems and roots.
B. Gametophyte is the dominant generation in bryophytes.
C. Archegonium produces one egg.
D. Sphagnum is used for making peat.

✅ Answer: A

Assertion (A): In bryophytes, the sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte.
Reason (R): Sporophyte is non-photosynthetic and attached to gametophyte.
Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, and R is false.

✅ Answer: A

Q10. Choose the incorrect match:
A. Liverwort – Marchantia
B. Moss – Funaria
C. Peat – Riccia
D. Pioneer species – Mosses and lichens

✅ Answer: C
💡 Trick: Peat is from Sphagnum (not Riccia)

🌱 LIVERWORTS –

Feature	Description
📍 Habitat	Moist, shady areas (e.g., stream banks, marshy ground, damp soil, bark of trees)
🍃 Plant Body	Thalloid, dorsiventral, closely appressed to substrate
🌿 Example	Marchantia
🌱 Leafy Members	Have tiny leaf-like structures in two rows on stem-like body

🔄 Asexual Reproduction

• Two ways:

  1. Fragmentation of thalli

  2. Gemmae formation

💡 Gemmae Info:

Feature	Details
📦 Gemmae	Green, multicellular, asexual buds
🏠 Formed in	Gemma cups (on upper surface of thalli)
🌱 Function	Detached → germinate → new plant

🧬 Sexual Reproduction

Component	Description
🔁 Sex organs	Found on same or different thalli
🧪 Male	Antheridia (♂)
🍶 Female	Archegonia (♀)
🔗 Fertilisation	Forms zygote (diploid)
🌱 Sporophyte	Develops from zygote → 3 parts: Foot, Seta, Capsule
🎯 Capsule	Site of meiosis → spores
🌿 Spores	Germinate to form gametophyte (haploid) again

1. The plant body of Marchantia is:
A. Erect and radial
B. Thalloid and dorsiventral
C. Leafy and upright
D. Dorsiventral with true leaves

✅ Answer: B
💡 Tip: Marchantia = M for Mat-like (Thalloid) on moist rocks

2. Which asexual reproductive structure is unique to liverworts like Marchantia?
A. Conidia
B. Zoospores
C. Gemmae
D. Sporangia

✅ Answer: C
🎯 Trick: Gemmae grow in Gemma cups — G for Green asexual Growth!

Which part of the liverwort sporophyte is responsible for producing spores?
A. Foot
B. Seta
C. Capsule
D. Gemma

✅ Answer: C

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4. In liverworts, sexual reproduction may occur:
A. Only when water is absent
B. Only on separate male and female thalli
C. On same or separate thalli
D. Inside gemma cups

✅ Answer: C

5. Where are gemma cups found?
A. On roots
B. On dorsal surface of thalli
C. Inside capsules
D. Along seta

✅ Answer: B
💡 Tip: Gemma cups sit on the top of thalli like tiny bowls!

Assertion (A): Gemmae are involved in sexual reproduction in liverworts.
Reason (R): Gemmae develop inside capsules of the sporophyte.
Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, and R is false.

✅ Answer: D
🧠 Explanation: Gemmae are for asexual reproduction and formed in gemma cups, not capsules.

assertion (A): Capsule of liverworts produces spores after meiosis.
Reason (R): Capsule is a part of the haploid gametophyte.x

ssertion (A): Capsule of liverworts produces spores after meiosis.
Reason (R): Capsule is a part of the haploid gametophyte.
✅ Answer: C
🧠 Explanation: Capsule is diploid and part of the sporophyte.

Q8. Identify the correct statement about liverworts:
A. Gemmae are sexual propagules.
B. Thallus is erect and radially symmetrical.
C. Gemma cups are found on thalli.
D. Foot of sporophyte produces spores.x

✅ Answer: C

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Which statement is incorrect?
A. Liverworts have vascular tissues.
B. They reproduce asexually through gemmae.
C. Capsule undergoes meiosis to form spores.
D. Gametophyte is the dominant phase.

✅ Answer: A

Quick One-Liners for MCQs

• Marchantia is a liverwort found in moist areas.

• Liverworts reproduce asexually via gemmae in gemma cups.

• Sporophyte is not free-living and grows on gametophyte.

• Sporophyte = foot, seta, capsule → meiosis → haploid spores.

• Dorsiventral thallus is a key feature of liverworts.

📌 General Features of Mosses

Feature	Description
🌿 Life Cycle Dominance	Gametophyte is dominant (haploid)
🔄 Two Gametophyte Stages

1. Protonema – Creeping, green, branched, filamentous (from spore)

2. Leafy Stage – Arises from protonema via lateral buds; erect axis with spirally arranged leaves | | 🌱 Attachment | Via branched, multicellular rhizoids | | 🧬 Sex Organs | Produced on leafy shoot apex (Antheridia ♂ & Archegonia ♀) |

🔁 Vegetative Reproduction

• Methods:

  • Fragmentation

  • Budding in the secondary protonema

Sexual Reproduction

Step	Process
🎯 Fertilisation	Biflagellate antherozoid swims to egg in water
🧪 Zygote Formation	Diploid zygote forms → develops into sporophyte
🌿 Sporophyte Parts	Foot, Seta, Capsule (FSC)
🧬 Spores	Produced via meiosis in capsule
💨 Spore Dispersal	Well-developed mechanism in mosses (unlike liverworts)
🌱 Spore Germination	Spores → Protonema → Leafy Stage → Gametophyte

🧠 Tips & Tricks to Remember

Concept	Trick
🧩 Protonema	“Proto = First” stage from spore – looks like algae
🌿 Leafy Stage	Spiral leaves = Stylish Mosses!
🎓 Sporophyte Parts	F.S.C. = Foot, Seta, Capsule
🌊 Water Requirement	“Moss needs Moisture” for fertilisation (like all Bryophytes)
🍃 Funaria Moss	Funaria = Fun in spirals → spiral leafy shoots!
🧪 Sphagnum	Sponge-like Moss = Soaks water → packing + peat

Assertion (A): Protonema stage in mosses is filamentous and photosynthetic.
Reason (R): Protonema develops from the zygote.
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, and R is false.

✅ Answer: C
🔍 Reason: Protonema is photosynthetic and filamentous, but it develops from a spore, not zygote.

Assertion (A): In mosses, the gametophyte has two stages – protonema and leafy stage.
Reason (R): Leafy stage develops from protonema through lateral buds.
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

✅ Answer: A

Assertion (A): Sporophyte in moss is free-living and photosynthetic.
Reason (R): It develops from the zygote after fertilisation.
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Answer: C
🔍 Sporophyte develops from zygote ✅, but it is not free-living — it’s attached to gametophyte.

Q4. Protonema stage of moss arises from zygote.

❌ False – It arises from a spore.

Q5. Antheridia and archegonia in mosses are borne on protonema.

❌ False – They are borne on the leafy stage.

Q6. Moss capsule contains spores formed by mitosis.

❌ False – Spores are formed by meiosis.

Q7. In mosses, leafy gametophytes are attached to the soil via rhizoids.

✅ True

8. Identify the correct statements:

1. Protonema stage is erect and spirally leafy.

2. Leafy stage develops from protonema.

3. Rhizoids in mosses are unicellular.

4. Sporophyte is more elaborate than in liverworts.

Options:
A. Only 2 and 4
✅ Answer: A
🔍 1 ❌ (Protonema is creeping); 3 ❌ (Rhizoids are multicellular)

Which of the following statements is incorrect?
A. Mosses reproduce vegetatively by budding in protonema.
B. Gametophyte in moss has only one stage – leafy.
C. Sphagnum is a common example of moss.
D. Sporophyte consists of foot, seta, and capsule.

---

v
✅ Answer: B – Gametophyte has two stages: protonema + leafy stage.

🌿 PTERIDOPHYTES –

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The First Vascular Land Plants 🔹 General Features

• Include horsetails and ferns

• Found in cool, damp, shady places

• Some grow in sandy soils

• Used as ornamentals, soil-binders & medicines

🧠 Trick: "Ferns are fancy (ornamental), firm (soil-binders), and pharma (medicinal)"

🔹 Plant Body

• Dominant phase: Sporophyte (2n)

• Differentiated into:

  • 🌱 Root

  • 🌿 Stem

  • 🍃 Leaves (Microphylls in Selaginella, Macrophylls in ferns)

• Well-developed vascular tissues

🧠 Trick: "Pteridophyte = Primary Sporophyte with Pipes (vascular tissues)"

Reproduction

• Sporophytes bear sporangia on sporophylls

  • Sometimes grouped as cones/strobili (Selaginella, Equisetum)

• Spores formed via meiosis

• Spores germinate to form:

  • Prothallus (haploid, free-living gametophyte)

  • Requires cool, damp places

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🔹 Sex Organs & Fertilization

x

• Male: Antheridia (release biflagellate antherozoids)

• Female: Archegonia (produces egg)

• Water is essential for fertilization

• Zygote → young sporophyte → dominant phase

🧠 Trick: "Pteridophytes PREFER Pools" (need water for fertilization)

🔹 Homosporous vs Heterosporous

• Homosporous: 1 type of spore → bisexual gametophyte

• Heterosporous (Selaginella, Salvinia):

  • Microspores → male gametophyte

  • Megaspores → female gametophyte (retained in parent)

🌱 Seed Habit Precursor: Female gametophyte + zygote development inside = evolutionary step towards seeds

1. Which of the following is a heterosporous pteridophyte?
   A. Lycopodium
   B. Selaginella
   C. Adiantum
   D. Equisetum
   ✅

1. Answer: B. Selaginella

The dominant phase in the life cycle of a pteridophyte is:
A. Gametophyte
B. Protonema
C. Sporophyte
D. Zygote

✅ Answer: C. Sporophyt

3. Prothallus in pteridophytes is:
   A. Sporophyte
   B. Diploid and photosynthetic
   C. Independent, photosynthetic gametophyte
   D. Dependent on sporophyte

3. 
   ✅ Answer: C. Independent, photosynthetic gametophyte

4. Sporangia in pteridophytes are borne on:
   A. Leaves
   B. Roots
   C. Sporophylls
   D. Rhizoids

✅ Answer: C. Sporophylls

5. Water is required in pteridophytes for:
   A. Spore dispersal
   B. Fertilisation
   C. Germination
   D. All of these

5. 
   ✅ Answer: B. Fertilisation

6. Assertion (A): Female gametophyte in heterosporous pteridophytes is retained on the parent sporophyte.
   Reason (R): This retention is considered a step towards seed habit.
   A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
   B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation.
   C. A is true, R is false.
   D. A is false, R is true.

6. 
   ✅ Answer: A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

7. Assertion (A): All pteridophytes are heterosporous.
   Reason (R): Heterospory is an advanced feature found in all vascular plants.
   A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation.
   B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation.
   C. A is false, R is true.
   D. Both A and R are false.

7. 
   ✅ Answer: C. A is false, R is true.
   (Only some pteridophytes are heterosporous)

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8. Pteridophyte gametophyte requires moist and shady conditions to grow.
   ✅ True

9. Sporophyte in pteridophytes is dependent on gametophyte for nutrition.
   ❌ False – It is independent and dominant.

10. Selaginella and Salvinia show heterospory.
    ✅ True

🔹 Classification

Class	Example
Psilopsida	Psilotum
Lycopsida	Selaginella, Lycopodium
Sphenopsida	Equisetum
Pteropsida	Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum

Assertion (A): The Two Kingdom system of classification was found inadequate.
Reason (R): It did not distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Options: A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: A

Assertion (A): Aristotle classified organisms using complex cellular structures.
Reason (R): He had access to modern microscopes for detailed observation.

Options: A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

v✅ Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Aristotle used simple morphological characters, not cellular structures.

Assertion (A): Linnaeus’ classification included both photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms under Plantae.
Reason (R): Linnaeus used the mode of nutrition as the sole basis of classification.

Options: A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: C
Explanation: Linnaeus did include both types, but not because he used only mode of nutrition.

Assertion (A): Classification systems have remained unchanged since Linnaeus’ time.
Reason (R): Scientists agreed on a common understanding of all organisms.

Options: A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Classification systems have changed; there was no full agreement.

Assertion (A): The early classifications were not scientific.
Reason (R): They were based on human needs like food, shelter, and clothing.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: A

Assertion (A): All living organisms can be neatly placed into either the plant or animal kingdom.
Reason (R): The two kingdom classification system covers all major characteristics of life.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Many organisms didn’t fit into plant/animal categories; the system was inadequate.

Assertion (A): Modern classification systems consider evolutionary relationships.
Reason (R): Gross morphology is the only reliable feature for classification.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: C
Explanation: Modern classification uses many features, not just gross morphology.

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1. T/F: Aristotle used red blood as a basis to classify animals.

2. T/F: The two-kingdom system clearly separated unicellular from multicellular organisms.

3. T/F: Classification today includes features like cell structure, nutrition, and reproduction.

4. T/F: Linnaeus introduced the concept of eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

1. 
   ✅ True

2. 
   ❌ False

3. 
   ✅ True

4. 
   ❌ False

1. Modern classification considers characteristics like cell structure, mode of nutrition, and ___________ relationships.

2. The early systems were ___________ rather than scientific.

1. 
   ✅ evolutionary

2. 
   ✅ instinctive

Assertion (A): R.H. Whittaker classified organisms into five kingdoms.
Reason (R): He based his classification only on the presence or absence of a cell wall.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: C
Explanation: Whittaker used multiple criteria like cell structure, nutrition, phylogeny—not just cell wall.

Assertion (A): Kingdom Protista includes both plant-like and animal-like unicellular organisms.
Reason (R): Protista grouped organisms from different earlier kingdoms based on being unicellular and eukaryotic.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: A

Assertion (A): Fungi and green plants were grouped together in early classification systems.
Reason (R): Both had cell walls, though of different composition.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: A

Assertion (A): Kingdom Monera includes only eukaryotic organisms.
Reason (R): Monera and Protista both contain complex organisms with membrane-bound organelles.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, and R is false.

✅ Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Monera includes prokaryotes, and Monerans do not have membrane-bound organelles.

1. T/F: The Five Kingdom Classification was proposed by Carl Linnaeus.
   ❌ False (It was proposed by R.H. Whittaker)

2. T/F: Protista includes unicellular eukaryotes like Chlamydomonas and Amoeba.
   ✅ True

3. T/F: Fungi have cell walls made of cellulose.
   ❌ False (Fungi have chitin in their cell walls)

4. T/F: Evolutionary relationships are now considered in modern classification systems.
   ✅ True

• The Five Kingdom Classification was proposed by __________ in 1969.

• Kingdom Monera includes all __________ organisms.

• In Whittaker’s system, __________ includes unicellular eukaryotic organisms like Paramoecium and Chlamydomonas.

• Earlier, organisms were grouped mainly based on the presence of a __________, without considering other major features.

• 
  ✅ R.H. Whittaker
  ✅ prokaryotic
  ✅ Protista
  ✅ cell wall

fungi

Assertion (A): Fungi are found growing in warm and humid conditions.
Reason (R): Warm and moist environments favour fungal growth.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: A

Assertion (A): All fungi are multicellular.
Reason (R): Fungi have filamentous structures called hyphae.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Yeast is unicellular, so not all fungi are multicellular.

Assertion (A): Penicillium is an important fungal genus.
Reason (R): Penicillium causes rust disease in wheat.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: C
Explanation: Penicillium produces antibiotics; Puccinia causes wheat rust.

1. T/F: Fungal cell walls are made up of chitin and polysaccharides.

1. 
   ✅ True

1. T/F: Coenocytic hyphae have multiple nuclei in a single cytoplasmic mass without cross walls.

1. 
   ✅ True

1. T/F: All fungi are autotrophs.x

1. 
   ❌ False (Fungi are heterotrophs)

1. T/F: All fungi are autotrophs.

1. 
   ❌ False (Fungi are heterotrophs)

• 
  ✅ hyphae

• The thread-like structures forming the fungal body are called __________.

• 
  ✅ saprophytes

• Fungi that absorb nutrients from dead organic matter are called __________.

• 
  ✅ Penicillium

• Fungi like __________ are used to produce antibiotics.

• x

✅ mycorrhiza

Fungi that live in association with plant roots form __________.

Assertion (A): Dikaryophase is a characteristic feature of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes.
Reason (R): In these fungi, plasmogamy is followed immediately by karyogamy.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: C
Explanation: Plasmogamy is not immediately followed by karyogamy in ascomycetes & basidiomycetes; they show a dikaryotic stage first

Assertion (A): Sexual spores like ascospores and basidiospores are formed after meiosis.
Reason (R): Meiosis occurs in diploid zygote cells during sexual reproduction in fungi.

Options:
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.

✅ Correct Answer: A