Psychology Key Terms

Social Identity Theory

Suggests a person’s sense of who they are is based on group membership(s).

Social Groups

A collection of people who identify and interact with each other.

Social categorisation

The process of classifying people into groups based on similar characteristics.

Social identity

Part of a person’s self-concept derived from perceived membership in a social group.

Social comparison

Evaluating one's own group in relation to others to maintain self-esteem.

In-groups and out-groups

Groups to which an individual feels they belong (in-group) or do not belong (out-group).

Favouritism and bias

Tendency to prefer and positively judge members of one’s own group.

Minimal group paradigm

A method to investigate the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between groups.

Social Cognitive Theory

The theory that learning occurs by observing others and modeling their behavior.

Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation, Reinforcement

Processes involved in observational learning.

The Model: Consistency, Identification, Liking

Factors that influence whether a model is imitated.

Stereotypes

A widely held but oversimplified belief about a group of people.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when none exists.

Stereotype threat

When individuals are at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their group.

Spotlight anxiety

Increased pressure and stress from being stereotyped or watched.

Culture (surface culture and deep culture)

Surface culture includes visible aspects (food, clothing); deep culture includes beliefs, values, and thought patterns.

Cultural Groups

Groups of people who share common cultural practices, values, and norms.

Cognition (behaviour of memory)

The process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought and experience.

Hofstede's cultural dimensions

Framework for understanding cultural differences, includes 6 dimensions.

Individualist vs collectivist

Individualists prioritize self and independence; collectivists emphasize group goals and community.

Conformity

Adjusting behaviors or thoughts to align with group norms.

Enculturation

The process of learning and adopting the values and behaviors of one’s own culture.

Norms

Shared expectations and rules guiding the behavior of people within social groups.

Acculturation

The process of cultural and psychological change after contact between cultures.

Assimilation

When individuals adopt the cultural norms of a dominant or host culture over their original culture.

Integration

Maintaining one's original culture while also participating in the host culture.

Separation

Rejecting the host culture in favor of maintaining one's original culture.

Marginalisation

Losing cultural contact with both the original and host cultures.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

A model describing memory as a flow through sensory, short-term, and long-term stores.

Sensory - Short Term - Long Term

The three stages in the multi-store model of memory.

Storage

The process of maintaining information in memory over time.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall first and last items in a list better than the middle ones.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to better remember items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

The tendency to better remember items at the end of a list.

Central Executive

The part of working memory responsible for controlling attention and coordinating components.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Stores and processes visual and spatial information.

Episodic Buffer

Integrates information across domains into a single complex memory.

Phonological Loop

Processes and stores auditory and verbal information.

Schema Theory

A theory that knowledge is organized into mental frameworks called schemas.

Cognitive Schema

Mental structures that help organize and interpret information.

Dual Processing Model

A model proposing two systems of thinking: fast/intuitive and slow/rational.

System 1 and System 2

System 1 is fast, automatic, and emotional; System 2 is slower, more deliberate, and logical.

Reconstructive memory

A theory that memories are reconstructed using existing knowledge and new information.

Recall

Retrieving previously learned information from memory.

Post-information

New information presented after an event that can alter memory.

Leading questions

Questions phrased in a way that suggest a particular answer.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision making.

Anchoring Bias

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

Plausible and implausible anchors

Initial reference points that may be realistic (plausible) or unrealistic (implausible) but still influence estimates.

Flashbulb memory

A vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.

Proximity

The closeness of the individual to the event or people involved.

Vivid

Intense, clear, and detailed memory recall.