LA nursing review questions

Colic

Abdominal pain.

Clinical signs of colic

Decreased eating/drinking, reduced feces, pawing, looking/kicking at belly, lip curling/flehmen, repeated lying down, rolling, thrashing.

Flehmen response

Upper-lip curl used to draw scents in; in colic it appears as a pain response.

Average volume of the equine stomach

5-15 L; transit <2 hours.

Average length of the equine small intestine

~75 ft; transit 45 minutes-8 hours.

Horses inability to vomit

Very strong cardiac sphincter and oblique esophageal entry prevent reverse flow.

Hindgut fermenter

An animal that performs microbial digestion in the cecum and colon.

Fermentation portion of the equine gastrointestinal tract

Cecum and large colon.

Length and volume of the equine cecum

~4 ft; ~30 L.

Location of the cecum

Right side.

GI structure folded in a double horseshoe shape

The large colon.

Length and volume of the equine large colon

~12 ft; ~80 L.

Large colon sections in order

Right ventral colon → Sternal flexure → Left ventral colon → Pelvic flexure → Left dorsal colon → Diaphragmatic flexure → Right dorsal colon → Transverse colon → Small colon → Rectum.

Absorptive structure of the intestinal tract

The mucosa (villi/enterocytes).

Four tissue layers of the intestinal tract

Mucosa → Submucosa → Muscularis → Serosa; nerves and vessels are in the submucosa.

Peristaltic and aboral movement in the GI tract

-Peristaltic = rhythmic contractions;

-aboral = moving toward the anus.

Risk factors associated with colic

Stalling, limited turnout, feed changes, diet type, prior colic, age, breed, medications, parasite burden, dental issues.

Horses' evolutionary eating behavior

Constant movement, continuous grazing, coarse forage intake.

Modern feeding and management practices effect

Reduced movement and concentrated feeds increase colic risk via motility changes and impactions.

Medication effect on GI tract and colic predisposition

NSAIDs risk ulcers; other drugs alter motility.

Parasitic burden effect on colic predisposition

Causes intestinal damage, impactions, and motility disturbances.

Tympany

Gas distension of the GI tract.

Difference between non-strangulating and strangulating obstruction

-Non-strangulating = lumen blocked but blood flow intact

-strangulating = lumen + blood flow compromised.

Causes of bowel lumen blockage

Ingesta impaction, sand, foreign bodies, enteroliths, fecoliths.

Left dorsal displacement

Colon trapped over nephrosplenic ligament; nephrosplenic entrapment.

Right dorsal displacement

Colon shifts and rotates rightward around the cecum.

Torsion relative to the equine colon

Rotation of the colon along its long axis.

Likelihood of torsion in LDL vs RDL

RDL—more mobility and gas load predispose it to twist.

Injury progression with an obstruction

Distension → ↑ intraluminal pressure → vascular compression → ischemia → mucosal compromise → rupture.

Medical vs surgical treatment options

-Medical = fluids, analgesia, NG tube, laxatives

-Surgical = strangulation, severe displacement, unrelenting pain.

True surgical emergency

Strangulating obstruction or large colon torsion >180°.

Importance of inguinal hernias

Possible site of small intestinal entrapment leading to strangulation.

Intussusception

One bowel segment telescopes into another.

Pedunculated lipomas

Fat masses on stalks that can wrap around intestine and strangle it.

Difference between torsion and volvulus

-Torsion = twist along long axis

-volvulus = twist of mesentery (usually SI), more severe.

Highest cause of mortality in colic

Strangulating obstruction.

Torsion

Twist along long axis

Volvulus

Twist of mesentery (usually SI), more severe

What is the highest cause of mortality in colic?

Strangulating obstruction.

What is an anastomosis?

Surgical joining of two bowel ends after resection.

What is the first organ visualized when ventral midline is opened during surgery?

The cecum.

What is the order of tissue death?

Mucosa first → then submucosa → muscularis → serosa.

What is the difference between dehydration and hypovolemia?

-Dehydration = intracellular fluid loss

-hypovolemia = intravascular fluid loss.

What is a protein-losing enteropathy?

GI disease causing protein loss into the lumen.

What causes hypovolemia?

Fluid sequestration, third spacing, reflux, inadequate intake.

Why do we see an increase in lactate in the peripheral blood?

Tissue hypoxia from poor perfusion or compromised bowel.

What causes pain in strangulating vs. non-strangulating colic?

-Non-strangulating = distension

-Strangulating = distension + ischemia.

What issues does bowel distention cause?

Pain, hypoxia, reflux, vascular compromise.

What are reasons reflux occurs?

Small intestinal obstruction, ileus, fluid accumulation oral to blockage.

What is systemic inflammatory response syndrome/endotoxemia?

Bacterial/endotoxin translocation → systemic inflammation → organ dysfunction.

What are clinical signs of SIRS?

Fever, malaise, dark MM, delayed CRT, tachycardia, tachypnea, dehydration.

Why does blood pressure drop after relieving a torsion in surgery?

Reperfusion leads to vasodilation and inflammatory mediator release.

What is normal equine TPR?

99-101.5°F

28-44 bpm

10-24 breaths/min.

What do cold ears and sweating indicate?

Pain, shock, hypovolemia.

What is a toxic line, and what does it indicate?

Purple gum line indicating endotoxemia.

On physical exam, what does mucous membrane condition tell you?

Perfusion, hydration, shock status.

What is borborygmi?

GI motility sounds.

Where does auscultation of borborygmi occur, and how long should you listen?

All four quadrants + ventral midline; 1 minute per quadrant.

What is the normal occurrence of borborygmi per minute?

1-3 per minute per quadrant.

Is it normal to hear gut sounds when ausculting the heart?

Yes.

What are abnormal borborygmi, and what are they associated with?

-Decreased sounds = ileus

-high-pitched pings = gas

-"waves on the beach" = fluid/enteritis.

When is nasogastric intubation performed immediately, and why?

HR >60 bpm or suspected gastric distension—prevents gastric rupture.

What is needed to set up for a nasogastric tube?

Restraint, proper-sized tube, water bucket with known volume, pump, empty bucket.

Why is it important to have a proper-sized NG tube?

Prevents trauma and ensures correct placement.

Discuss how a NG tube is passed. Include all anatomic structures from nares to stomach.

Nares → ventral meatus → nasopharynx → esophagus → stomach.

How do you determine that a NG tube is passed correctly?

Tube felt in left neck, smell of gastric gas, negative pressure.

What is reflux?

Fluid removed from stomach via NG tube.

What are the steps to reflux a horse once a NG tube is passed?

Pump measured water → drop tube into bucket → siphon starts → collect reflux → repeat.

What temperature water should be used to reflux a horse? Why?

Lukewarm—avoids cramping and irritation.

How do you determine the volume of net reflux?

Total fluid recovered minus fluid pumped in.

What can rectal palpation evaluate?

Spleen, nephrosplenic ligament, kidney, cecal base, pelvic flexure, small colon, distention, masses.

What can transabdominal ultrasound evaluate?

Bowel wall thickness, motility, organ position, peritoneal fluid.

What normal anatomy is visible on right vs left abdominal ultrasound?

-Right: cecum, right colon, duodenum, right kidney, liver.

-Left: spleen, stomach, left colon, left kidney, liver.

What is abdominocentesis? What area is prepared and why? What materials are needed?

Sampling peritoneal fluid; ventral midline slightly right; requires sterile prep, local block, needle/teat cannula, tubes.

Why use a teat cannula vs needle when performing abdominocentesis?

Lower risk of puncturing bowel.

What are normal values for equine abdominal fluid?

Clear yellow, TP <2.5 g/dL, WBC ~5,000/µL.

What are normal values for equine PCV, TP, and lactate?

-PCV 32-48%;

-TP 4.7-7.5 g/dL;

-lactate <2 mmol/L.

What changes in dairy cattle behavior indicate illness?

Behavioral signs are used to distinguish health from sickness.

-not mentioned in slides 🙂 but things like decreased appetite, lethargy, social withdrawal, labored breathing, can all be a few signs

How does understanding behavior reduce animal stress?

Use cattle's routine, avoid loud noises, avoid isolation, avoid distractions, use slow deliberate movement.

What are the two major subspecies of cattle?

-Bos indicus: humped shoulder, long ears.

-Bos taurus: no hump.

What is allelomimetic behavior?

Behavior where one animal's action increases the likelihood that others will perform the same action.

What does it mean that cattle are crepuscular?

They are most active at sunset and sunrise.

What are normal behaviors of herd animals?

Follow the leader, group together, frightened by intruders, anxious when isolated.

Why are isolated dairy cattle more dangerous?

Isolated animals are more dangerous.

How does social dominance affect confined cattle?

Higher-ranking cows have priority to feed, drink, and shelter.

Describe the field of vision of cattle.

Approximately 330° wide-angle vision.

What is monocular vision?

Each eye sees a separate image; horizontal pupils.

What impact does poor depth perception have on the management of cattle?

Shadows appear extreme and may affect movement.

What does it mean to balk?

they stop suddenly and refuse to move forward

Discuss design elements that promote low stress and ease of movement in cattle handling facilities.

Use routine; avoid loud noises, distractions, and isolation; use slow, deliberate movement.

When does REM sleep occur in cows?

Mostly at night and only when lying down.

What do cows prioritize over feeding and socializing? Why?

Lying down, especially when deprived of resting time.

To what kinds of sounds are cattle sensitive?

High-pitch and high-frequency sounds; avoid yelling.

How important is olfaction? Give examples.

-Main sense for sexual, social, maternal behavior;

-pheromone identification, Flehmen response, maternal bonding.

Compare autogrooming vs. allogrooming.

-Autogrooming: self-licking

-Allogrooming: grooming others.

Describe the flight zone of cattle, and discuss the difference between dairy and beef cattle.

Flight zone: animal's personal space indicating threat; size depends on tameness and excitement.

What is the danger to humans when working with isolated cattle?

Isolated animals are more dangerous because they are anxious

What is the dairy cow budget vs. circle of excellence?

High-producing cows rest more (14.1 h vs 11.8 h) and perch less (0.5 h vs 1.4 h).

How does resting time relate to milk production and profitability in the dairy industry?

Higher-producing cows rest more.

What is stall perching, and why do producers dislike this behavior?

-Standing with front feet in stall

-high-producing cows perch less.