Exam 2 Study Prep

group

A set of individuals who interact over time and have shared fate, goals, or identity.

group cohesiveness

The extent to which forces push group members closer together, such as through feelings of intimacy, unity and commitment to group goals.

social facilitation

A process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks.

mere presence theory

The proposition that the mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects.

evaluation apprehension theory

Theory that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are seen as potential evaluators.

distraction-conflict theory

A theory that the presence of others produce social facilitation effects only when those others distract from the task and create attentional conflict.

social loafing

A group-produced reduction in individual output on tasks where contributions are pooled.

collective effort model

The theory that individuals will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their individual efforts will be important, relevant, and meaningful for achieving outcomes that they value.

deindividuation

The loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior.

social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE)

A model of group behavior that explains deindividuation effects as the result of a shift from personal identity to social identity.

process loss

The reduction in group performance due to obstacles created by group processes, such as problems of coordination and motivation.

process gain

The increase in group performance so that the group outperforms the individuals who comprise the group.

brainstorming

A technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or others' contributions.

group polarization

The exaggeration of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members through group discussion.

groupthink

A group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence.

escalation effect

The condition in which commitments to a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made.

biased sampling

The tendency for groups to spend more time discussing shared information (information already known by all or most group members) than unshared information (information known by only one or a few group members).

transactive memory

A shared system for remembering information that enables multiple people to remember information together more efficiently than they could do so alone.

group support systems

Specialized interactive computer programs that are used to guide group meetings, collaborative work, and decision-making processes.

social dilemma

A situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone will create the worst outcome for everyone.

prisoner's dilemma

A type of dilemma in which one party must make either cooperative or competitive moves in relation to another party. The dilemma is typically designed so that the competitive move appears to be in one's self-interest, but if both sides make this move, they both suffer more than if they had both cooperated.

resource dilemmas

Social dilemmas involving how two or more people will share a limited resource.

graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction (GRIT)

A strategy for unilateral persistent efforts to establish trust and cooperation between opposing parties.

integrative agreement

A negotiated resolution to a conflict in which all parties obtain outcomes that are superior to what they would have obtained from an equal division of the contested resources.

need for affiliation

The desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships

loneliness

A feeling of deprivation about existing social relations

mere exposure effect

The phenomenon whereby the more often people are exposed to a stimulus, the more positively they evaluate that stimulus

what-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype

The belief that physically attractive individuals also possess desirable personality characteristics

matching hypothesis

The proposition that people are attracted to others who are similar in physical attractiveness

reciprocity

A mutual exchange between what we give and receive (for example, like those who like us)

hard-to-get effect

The tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readily available

intimate relationships

A close relationship between two adults involving emotional attachment, fulfillment of psychological needs, or interdependence

social exchange theory

A perspective that views people as motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others

equity theory

The theory that people are most satisfied with a relationship when the ration between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners

exchange relationships

A relationship in which the participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions

communal relationship

A relationship in which the participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other's needs

attachment styles

The way a person typically interacts with significant others

triangular theory of love

A theory proposing that love has three basic components--intimacy, passion, and commitment--which can be combined to produce eight subtypes

passionate love

Romantic love characterized by high arousal, intense attraction, and fear of rejection

companionate love

A secure, trusting, stable partnership

excitation transfer

The process whereby arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus

self-disclosure

Revelations about the self that a person makes to others

sexual orientation

A person's preference for members of the same sex (homosexuality), opposite sex (heterosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality)

need for affiliation

desire to establish social contact with others

attraction

- direct rewards: attention, support, money, status, information, commodities

- indirect rewards: beautiful, smart, funny

- attractiveness: fertility

the proximity effect

- the best predictor of whether two people will get together is physical proximity

mere exposure effect

- the more you see, the more you like

physical attractiveness

- more attractive ==> more positive attributes (e.g., smarter, more likeable)

- babyface is considered attractive

interpersonal attraction

- familiarity: proximity; mere exposure;

- physical attraction

similarity and attitudes

- couples that are more similar to each other are attracted to each other

reciprocity in attraction

- like people who like us. if you want someone to like you make them know you like them first!

playing hard to get

- prefer people who are moderately selective not TOO selective because we fear rejection.

babyness(idk)

idk

newborn sensory-social abilities(idk)

idk

bowlby's attachment theory

- there is a link between parent-child relation and how that child relates to others as an adult.

matching hypothesis

- attractive ppl marry attractive ppl

- unattractive ppl marry unattractive ppl

self fulfilling profecy and beauty

- half men get photo of attractive female other half gets unattractive (not real photos of those on the phone)

- men treated her differently when he THOUGH she was attractive

- women in term became more likable ie more animated, more confident, warmer

objective/subjective beauty (culture issue)

- objective: babies stare at attractive faces longer than unattractive ones

- hourglass figure in women vs tubular says that cultural differences in beauty do exist

averageness

- average face made of a composite of other faces is viewed as more attractive

- why? people prefer symmetry

- why symmetry? associated with health, fitness, and fertility

what are the different types? (attachment style)

- secure: easy to get close to others, comfortable depending on them (56%)

- avoidant: uncomfortable being close, trust issues (25%)

- anxious: reluctant to get close, worries of being unloved (19%)

what's involved? (intimate/romantic relationships)

- feeling of attachment, affection, and love

- fulfillment of psychological needs

sternberg's triangular theory

- romantic love: intimacy + passion (Pre break up)

- companionate love: intamacy + commitment (isabel)

- fatuous love: passion + commitment

- consummate love: intamacy + passion + commitment!!!!!

excitation transfer

- mistake passion for the psychological arousal due to an external event (e.g., concert)

why do we help

- gain rewards (e.g., reciprocity) avoid punishment (being looked down by others for not helping)

evolutionary factors (helping)

- selfish gene

- reciprocal altruism

- cooperative group

- rewards of helping

- costs of not helping

selfish gene

- helping each other is important to individuals survival therefore helping is due to the selfish gene

reciprocal altruism

- we are altruistic because by helping others one we expect that one day they will return the favor

cooperative group

- by helping each other in the group, humans are sometimes able to increase their reproductive success rate

rewards of helping

helpign ==> feeling better about oneself

costs of not helping

- if the cost of helping is low then people are more likely to help

- courageous resistance: sustained and deliberate helping

- negative costs due to helping too much

altruism vs egoism

- altruistic: motivated to help by the desire to increase someone else's welfare

- egoistic: motivated: motivated to help by the desire to somehow increase one's own welfare (e.g., feel good, expectation of reciprocity)

- factors: ease of escape from helping

The empathy-altruism hypothesis (Batson)

- if you adopt the others persons perspective and have an emotional response to it (e.g. empathy) it is considered altruistic; otherwise egoistic.

bystander effect (situation)

- we think since there are many other people here someone else will make the 911 call but if everyone thinks this way, no one will help

5 steps to an emergency (situation)

emergency ==> notice surrounding ==> interpret as emergency ==> decide to help ==> provide help

time pressure (situation)

- someone in a rush or absent minded (e.g., preoccupied with other pressing concerns) will be less likely to help

mood and helping (situation)

- good mood ==> more likely to help

- bad mood ==> MAYBE more helpful (e.g. feel guilty, focus on people to feel better)

- good mood correlates to higher helpfulness compared to bad mood

social learning theory (situation)

- role models for helpfulness

- role models show what kind of behaviors are good (e.g., helpfullness); shows the rewards of being helpful and the value (e.g., praise); aware of social morality

norms of helping (situation)

- reciprocity

- equity

- social helping

- concerns over fairness and justice

- self interest

altruistic personality

- people with high levels of empathy and people with high moral reasoning

attractiveness and being helped

- more likely to be helped by others

attributions of responsibility

- if we believe that people who need help are NOT responsible for the predicament they are in (e.g., aids patients being infected as a result of blood transfusions as opposed to sexual behavior)

similarity and helping

- more likely to help those who are similar to us (e.g., family or ingroup members)

emotions and helping

- pity + admiration ==> higher chance of helping (individuals who have high competence and warmth)

- envy + contempt ==> lower chance of helping

closeness and helping

- the closer you are to someone the more likely that you will help them

reactions to help

- high self esteem ==> negative reaction to help

- inferiority complex

- sig other helps on ego relevant tasks ==> threatens self esteem

threat to self esteem model

- when recipient feels cared for/appreciated ==> self-supportive

- when recipient feels inferior or overly dependent ==> self-threatening

instinct theory

- freud: death instinct vs life instinct

- aggression death instinct is turned outwards at others

evolutionary theory

- genetic survival

- genetic selection for aggression

social learning theory

- bobo doll experiment

- learn how to behavior prosocially means learn aggression from others as well

frustration-aggression theory

- frustration ==> aggression

- frustrated kids destroyed toys

- cut in line 2nd person vs 12th ==> more frustrated so more aggressive when closer to goal

- high expectations that are not met ==> higher levels of frustrations ==> aggression

frustration-aggression theory modification

berkowitz

- frustration ==> anger

- anger w "aggressive cue" ==> aggression

- "aggressive cue" (e..g., gun)

angry

state of already being angry + anggressive cue == higher likelihood of aggression

exposure to violent cues

e.g. gun,

alcohol myopia

- intoxication ==> aggression

- aggressive: powerful and simple

- inhibition: weaker and complex

heat

- increases hit by pitch incidents, horn honking, choose to believe events in a more hostile nature

media violence

- higher violence in media ==> more aggressive behavior (experiment shows)

- short term: priming; arousal; anger

- longterm: social learning -- teaches aggression; develop aggressive schemas; desensitization

catharsis

- doesn't really work

punishment

- deterrence theory

- corporal punishment

reduce aggression

- remove aggressive cues

- provide better role models

instrumental aggression

- aggression in order to get something (e.g. beat up kids for money; threaten wife to control her)