History test 2

Song of Roland

• reflects the fight between christianity and islam and would motivate individuals to fight in the crusades

• A fictional history written down in 1100 describing Charlemagne's nephew Rolands dedication to his lord and christianity.

Agricultural Revolution

• Began in the 8th century and Peaked in 1050

• ​​increased the amount of land under cultivation as well as the productivity of the land. This revolution was made possible through the use of new technology, a rise in global temperatures, and more efficient methods of cultivation.

• New crop rotation system helped spread labor more evenly throughout the year, and inventions such as the mill unlocked a new source of economic and political power. Also revitalized towns and promoted feudalism

Manor

• farmland worked by the inhabitants of an entire village, by their own initiative or under a lord

• Provided greater productivity than individual fields and they would become the heart of medieval economics and politics after the agricultural revolution. Manors would come with special privileges and controlling one made someone important and brought wealth

Serfs

A peasant laborer who was bound to the land they worked, this limited social mobility as a person's status was tied to their place on the land 

• Serfdom made is easier for lords to control and exploit peasants 

• Began around 10th century

Vassals

• A person who pledged loyalty to a lord in exchange for income, protection, and land. 

• These relationships were essential to creating and maintaining order 

• Became common around the 9th or 10th century

Commune

• A community of individuals who have banded together in a sworn association, with the aim of establishing their independence and setting up their own form of representative government. Many medieval towns originally founded by lords or monasteries gained their independence through such methods.

• An example being arras in 1127, this arrangement was beneficial to the citizens and the monastery that taxed them, and arras would be the most wealthy town in northern europe by the end of the century

Knights

• Lords needed warriors to enforce their power so each lord had an army of knights on horseback. 

• These knights would come to regard themselves as special military elite with their own rules of conduct 

• The pope would call for knights to go to the holy land and liberate, which launched the first crusade in the end of the 11th century

Fief

• A gift or grant that creates a contractual relationship between the giver and the receiver 

• Commonly land given to individuals for loyalty or service, which would result in the receiver becoming the givers vassal 

• Fiefs bound society together through the distribution of land for loyalty and service

homage

• A ceremony in which an individual become the man of his lord

• Established the lord as the dominant figure who would protect the vassal in exchange for his loyalty and support

• These relationships were essential for maintaining and creating order

William of normandy

• In 1066 he claimed he was the rightful successor of the english king, but he was ignored so he took the kingdom by force 

• He had the first monarchy that dominated other powerful lordships by asserting his power was granted to him by imperial conquest and succession and by rewarding his followers with fiefs 

Investiture Controversy

A dispute during the later half of the 11th century over whether rulers could appoint their own bishops and invest them with their offices. Was decades long and Led to a decline in imperial power and the papacy growing stronger

cluniac reform

• A series of monastic reforms beginning in the 10th century such as  establishing hierarchy between monasteries for the first time  

• The collection of Reforms would lead to monasticism becoming the dominant spiritual model for latin christianity and influencing everyday people more

Urban II

• A pope who called for the first crusade at the end of the 11th century in an attempt to increase papal power

•  said that anyone who went would be free of sin and go straight to heaven 

• Resulted in the taking of jerusalem and the slaughtering of its inhabitants as well as increased negativity and violence towards jewish people

first crusade

• A quest to take back jerusalem from its muslim captors urged by pope urban II 

• They were able to take jerusalem quickly due to internal division between muslims at the time 

• Contributed to the decline of byzantine commerce and altered the balance of power between byzantium and western europe, both muslims and christians also learned new methods of warfare, settlers in the holy land brought a new hybrid culture 

• Most importantly provided justification for holy war driving more future conflicts and conquests 

peter abelard

• Late 11th to mid 12th century 

• Highly  influential philosopher, theologian and teacher. Considered the founder of the university of paris which would turn paris into the intellectual capital of europe

Henry II of England

• King of england from mid to late 12th century 

• Made reforms to the legal system which brought more average people into the exercise of government and brought him into conflict with the church as his laws allowed clergy to be convicted of crimes and lose their clerical status 

• Laid the basis for english common law

Guild

• Professional associates that regulated industries by preserving monopolies and limiting competition

• Instruments of economic control and important social, political, and cultural institutions

  • Guild empowered their members and provided them with political representation which raised their social status  

• Most were closed to jews and muslims and restricted opportunities available for women

• increased productivity, increased wages, and higher standards of living

Ordeal

• Methods of providing evidence based on the idea that god was active in the world 

• Were important bc they could provide solutions that would prevent blood feuds and bc evidence was often hard to come by with large population density and most of the population being illiterate

• Prohibited by kings in the 12th and 13th century bc they undermined royal law

Magna carta

• a charter that defined the barons rights while limiting those of the king: key principles, trial by jury, taxation with consent and parliamentary representation 

• Sowed the seeds that the king must be subject to laws and that a legislative body should help to govern the kingdom

• early 13th century

Universities

• The ideas islamic learning and greek philosophy which were transmitted by the crusades led to the creation of universities 

• Universities sparked an intellectual revolution in europe 

• Universities were also looked to to solve theological disputes

Philip II of France

• Late 12th and early 13th century 

• First king to use the title of king of france rather than king of the franks, which cemented the idea of a sovereign state

• Captured normandy and adjacent territories and built a system of local administration that would promote centralized royal control while recognizing diversity which would continue until the french revolution

Frederick Barbarossa

• Ruled germany in the mid 12th century and used the term holy roman empire to assert that his rule was derived from the blessing of god and not papal intervention 

• Attempted to return the empire to the strength it had during the carolingean era, While his administration was a success the holy roman empire would disintegrate after the death of his son

Reconquista

• The process during which Christian rulers in Spain were beginning to forge effective alliances, in order to counter the power of their wealthy and well-governed Muslim neighbors.

• Spanned approximately 770 years beginning after the initial umayyad conquest of hispania in the 710’s

• Framed as a continuation of the crusades since they were seeking to “reconquer” territory 

• Resulted in christians expanding into islamic territory in the iberian peninsula  and catholicism dominating the politics and culture of spain

Innocent III

• Goal of uniting all christians under the pope 

• He consolidated papal territories in italy, and ratified the theological agenda at the fourth lateran council of 1215

  • Acknowledged papal supremacy, regulated christian education, and increased conflict between christians and muslims and jews  

• His rule achieved the height of papal power but would lead to political and military struggles for popes in the future 

Fourth Crusade

• 1202-1204

• Ended in the destruction of Constantinople and its domination by venetians

• Called by pope innocent III

Saladin

• 1138-1193 (12th)

• Sultan of egypt and syria, who rallied muslim opposition to crusaders and recaptured the holy city 

• Became the target of the third crusade but he was victorious

• His successors would continue to rally islamic people in opposition of european colonialism 

Hildegard of Bingen

• Around beginning to mid 12th century 

• A woman mystic who claimed to receive regular revelations from god 

• Outspoken and creative in her efforts to make a place for her and her female followers, her advice was frequently sought by religious and secular authorities 

• She was the first female composer and one of the few prominent women during medieval history

Albigensian crusade

• A crusade encouraged by innocent III against heretics called the cathars in 1209

• Justified the colonization of southern france and created lasting tensions with the french 

Cistercians

• Monks that followed benedict's rule and founded monasteries in remote areas far from temptations

• Became more popular during mid 12th century 

• The ruler of the cistercians, bernard, preached transubstantiation and made mass more important

Dominicans

• An order dedicated to the persecution of heretics and the conversion of jews and muslims 

• Embraced by Innocent III

• Contributed to the development of philosophy and theology in universities and gave rise to leading administrators of the inquisition

Dominic of Osma

Castilian preacher who founded the dominicans  (1170-1221)

Fransciscans

• An order committed to the welfare of the poor and the cultivation of personal spirituality started around late 11th-early 12th century)

• Embraced by pope innocent III bc they submitted to the papacy

Franscis of Assisi

• Crater of the franciscans

• Strove to imitate the life of jesus 

• Had female followers but the were not approved of by Innocent III

Scholasticism

• A way of reconciling various forms of knowledge through logical debate beginning around 11th century

• Scholastic method made paris the intellectual capital of europe 

• Driven in part by the establishment of free schools which made education accessible to boys from poor areas

Avverroes

• Muslim philosopher who advanced the study of aristolian logic through a series of commentaries translated from arabic into latin during the 12th century

• Highly influenced christian theology after the first crusade 

Thomas Aquinas

• Most influential theologian of the middle ages, active in the mid 13th centur

• Dominican

   

• His theology would provide evidence for christianity and become foundation for the roman catholic church

Court literature

• Literature centered around the ideals of class honor and valor for personal glory and moral perfection

• Chivalry put an emphasis on behaving in ways appropriate to a court, put emphasis on honor valor and loyalty

• While chivalry was male centered, much of the literature was addressed to, commissioned by, or composed by women

Romanesque

• Buildings that use the basic elements of architecture from the roman empire 

• Made churches plages of refuge that could be defended in troubled times, more practical than the gothic style that would come to be popular

Gothic

• A style of building cathedrals that became popular during the 12th and 13th centuries

• Manifestations of pride, expressions of genius, and symbols of a triumphant church 

• Stressed the ideas of heaven and earth being united through the vaults that directed the eyes upward, important bc the cathedral was the center for a regions christianity 

John Mandeville

Wrote a fictional account of wonders that would become a source for european ideas about south east asia and inspiration to explore. His writing influenced 15th century explorers including christopher columbus.

Genghis Khan

A mongol chief who conquered china  around 1200, helped to connect western and central asia and brought crucial trading posts into the empire. Over the course of the century khan and his successors built largest empires in history which stretched from the black sea to the pacific

Pax mongolica

Relatively peaceful century after the mongol conquests from 1250-1350 which enabled trade, communication, and travel within europe and asia. Resulted in a period of cultural exchange, but devastated many muslim cities during the mongol expansion

Marco Polo

Wrote an account of his travels with his brothers that tell of his service to the great khan and his journey across asia.  His voyage brought enormous wealth and spices back and his accounts of asia were the first written ones by explorers, so they formed europeans basis of knowledge about China.

Portolani

Special charts that mapped the location of ports and took note of prevailing winds, good harbors, and known perils. Were extremely valuable in assisting travelers sail unfamiliar waters.

Nominalism

A philosophical position that encourages empirical observation, since knowledge of the world should rest on sensory experiences rather than abstract theories. Formed the medieval foundation of the scientific method. The church oposed this as heresy

Giotto

An artist in the 14th century who was known for being a keen observer of nature and embraced the style of naturalism, which would become the norm by 1400. He is often regarded as a painter who inspired the italian renaissance

Dante aligheri

• Florentine poet and intellectual during the 14th century whose Divine Comedy was a pioneering work in the Italian vernacular and a vehicle for political and religious critique.

• Pioneered what he called a “sweet new style” of poetry. His poem “comedy” was a response to political turmoil in italy during his life that transformed the papacy.

The divine comedy

A poem written by dante aligheri which was a pioneering work in the italian vernacular and a vehicle for political and religous critique. Was a response to politcal turmoil in italy which transformed the papacy

Sacraments

• Sacred rites which are considered necessary for salvation, include baptism, confession of sin, the ordination of priests, and the eucharist or mass

• Mass became central to the religious lives of medieval christians 

• Penance was required to avoid atonement in purgatory 

• Demonstrated gods existence and helped push individuals to pursue salvation

Sovereignty

• authority over a defined territory 

• Philip augustus was the first monarch to define his kingship in geographical terms when he called himself the king of france instead of king of the franks in the 12th century

• The process of achieving sovereignty was an aggressive and violent one as states attempted to assert authority at the expense of others 

• In spain the quest for sovereignty over muslim lands and devestated muslim and jewish inhabitants 

• France and england were the most persistent in chasing sovereignty

• The pursuit of soverneighty would define many conflicts in the middle ages

Louis IX of France

• King of france known for his piety and his exercise of kingship, served in two crusade campaigns 

• His reform of the royal governance made france the rival of england for the first time 

• Canonized as a saint after his death, which his grandson would use to validate his actions such as expelling the jews and mistreating the knights templar.

Edward I of England

• Ruled england in 1272-1307 he diffused the power of the aristocracy by strengthening parliaments and reforming administration 

• Made wales a settler colony and dubbed his son the prince of wales 

• Attempted to take over scotland, and his expansionist policies would continue as his grandson attempted to take over france which would result in the 100 years war

Hundred years war

• A series of wars between England and France, fought mostly on French soil and prompted by the territorial and political claims of English monarchs. began in the 14th centur

• Longest and widest ranging military conflict since romes war with carthage

• Started by england and france as they competed for sovereignty, but most european powers became involved

• Resulted in defeat of the english crown and outbreak of an english civil wa

The great famine

• A period of terrible hunger and deprivation in Europe that peaked between 1315 and 1317, caused by a cooling of the climate and by soil exhaustion due to overfarming. It is estimated to have reduced the population of Europe by 10 to 15 percent.

• The famine left the survivors highly susceptible to disease which may have paved the way for the black death to do much damage

Philip IV of France

• King of France from 1285 until his death. Philip’s conflict with Pope Boniface VIII led to the transfer of the papal court to Avignon from 1309 to 1378.

• Popes were now natives of the region which cemented their loyalty to the french king

Boniface VIII

claims to papal authority were challenged by King Philip IV of France. When Boniface died in 1309 (at the hands of Philip’s thugs), the French king moved the papal court from Rome to the French city of Avignon, where it remained until 1378.

Black Death

• The epidemic of bubonic plague that ravaged Europe, Asia, and North Africa during the fourteenth century, killing one third to one half of the population.

• The loss of population would effect every aspect of medieval life, food was now abundant again, labor was more valuable,  birthrates rose, serfdom disappeared and farmers achieved higher social status

Babylonian captivity of the papacy

• the period from 1309 to 1378, when papal authority was subjugated to the French crown and the papal court was moved from Rome to the French city of Avignon.

• Avignon popes strengthened administrative control while weakening the papacys moral authority

English peasants revolt

Violent 1381 uprising in London, during which thousands of people marched on London to demand an end to serfdom and called for the redistribution of property. It ended with the arrest and execution of the ringleaders.

Ciompi

• Workers in the cloth industry

• They rebelled in 1378 and seized control of florence and demanded economic and political reforms

• Their regime remained in power for almost 4 years

Giovanni Boccacio

• Wrote the decameron, which was a collection of stories about young wome living outside florence trying to escape the black death

• He used plain spoken prose to capture human nature 

• Influenced the poet geofrey chaucer 

• The vernacular languages that were becoming powerful vehicles for literary expression were now being used to advance critical perspectives on changing social norms, political developments, and religious beliefs.

Geoffrey Chaucer

• Pioneered a form of english called middle english 

• poet whose collection of versified stories, The Canterbury Tales, features characters from a variety of classes.

• 1300-1400

• The vernacular languages that were becoming powerful vehicles for literary expression (Chapter 9) were now being used to advance critical perspectives on changing social norms, political developments, and religious beliefs

Christine de Pizan

• First lay woman to earn her living by writing and one of the most prolific authors of the middle agess 

• Challenged long standing misogyny made by male authors such as boccacio

Renaissance

the artistic, intellectual, and cultural movement that emerged in Italy after 1300 and that sought to recover and emulate the heritage of the classical past and humanism

Humanism

• Program of study aimed to replace the emphasis on logic and theology with the study of ancient literature, rhetoric, history, and ethics beginning in the late 14th century

• Understanding the human experience through the lens of the classical past, contributed to the desire for knowledge that led to the renaissance

• Humanism also led to misogyny 

• man’s nature equips him for action, for usefulness to his family, and for serving the state.

on the family

• A treatise by Alberti that supports the nuclear family as the fundamental unity of the city state, led to women being pushed into subservience and child bearing as their main role

• Believed women should play no role i the public sphere

Lorenzo Valla

• 1407-1457

  • Analyzed greek and latin writings to show how the study of language could discredit old assumptions

  • He analyzed a document said to have been written by constantine that granted the papacy secular power, and showed that it could not have been written in that time bc of the latin it used

Ottomans

• During the thirteenth century, the Ottoman dynasty established itself as leader of the Turks. From the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, the Ottomans conquered Anatolia, Armenia, Syria, and North Africa as well as parts of southeastern Europe, the Crimea, and areas along the Red Sea

• The ottomans attack on constantinople during the 1420’s and 30’s caused scholars to flee westward with books preserving the heritage of greece

• Under the ottomos istanbul flourished from the wealth and trade the ottomans brought

Mehmet the Conqueror

• Ottoman sultan who in 1451 led a conquest on constantinoples, in 1453 they breached the city and plundered it and killed or made slaves of the population

• Resulted in intellectual shock and fleeing of scholars

Joan of Arc

• peasant girl from the province of Lorraine who claimed to have been commanded by God to lead French forces against the English occupying army during the Hundred Years’ War. Successful in her efforts, she was betrayed by the French king and handed over to the English, who condemned her to death for heresy. Her reputation underwent a process of rehabilitation, but she was not officially canonized as a saint until 1920.

• Representative of the difficulties of medeival women to find outlets of their faith

national monarchies

• Idea of belonging to a kingdom based on a set of identities such as shared language or ethnicity, would be used to make a state more cohesive 

• Would increase prevalence of warfare in europe as states struggled for sovereignty and territory 

• allowed kingdoms such as Poland and Scotland to increase their territories and influence, and also led France and England into an epic battle for sovereignty

Great western schism

• The roman church divided into multiple competing popes, each claiming to be legitimate and denouncing the others

• Resulted in europes religious allegiances fracturing along political lines drawn by the 100 year war

• Adressed by the council of constance 

• Would lead to the church splitting into two groups: catholics and orthodox

Conciliar movement

• A legal doctrine issued in 1424 that decreed that supreme authority within the church rests not within the pope but within a representative general council

• Response to the great western schism 

• Martin V and his successors opposed this bc it limited their power and in 1449 it was ended

John Wycliffe

• A professor of theology at the University of Oxford, . He advocated direct access to the scriptures and promoted an English translation of the Bible. 

• His teachings played an important role in the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 and inspired the still more radical initiatives of a group known as Lollards.

Jan hus

• A Czech reformer who adopted many of the teachings of the English theologian John Wycliffe, and who also demanded that the laity be allowed to receive both the consecrated bread and wine of the Eucharist. 

• The Council of Constance burned him at the stake for heresy. In response, his supporters, the Hussites, revolted against the Church.