ADM 1195 - TEST 3

What conditions/circumstances results in high quality and low quality arguments?

Highest among groups that have a high degree of cognitive diversity – variety of different perspectives, less likely to have beliefs distorted by confirmation bias

Lowest among individuals (prone to negative effects of confirmation bias)

Describe in detail each of the following: honour culture, dignity culture, face culture, and victimhood culture

Honour cultures

• it is one’s reputation that makes one honourable or not, and one must respond aggressively to insults, aggressions, and challenges or lose honour.

• Not to fight back is itself a kind of moral failing, such that “in honour cultures, people are shunned or criticized not for exacting vengeance but for failing to do so

• Honourable people must guard their reputations, so they are highly sensitive to insult, often responding aggressively to what might seem to outsiders as minor slights

Dignity culture

• Self-worth is based on the individual's achievements, not reputation.

• Everyone has an intrinsic inalienable level of worth and value that they do not have to earn and that cannot be taken away.

• When intolerable conflicts do arise, dignity cultures prescribe direct but non-violent actions, such as negotiated compromise geared toward solving the problem.

• In the case of severe offenses, people are to go to the police or appeal to the courts

Face Cultures

• Individuals are encouraged to respect and represent their position within a hierarchy and to rely on leaders or the group as a whole to regulate social transgressions

• People are obligated to work together to protect social harmony (self-worth reflects the extent to which an individual fulfills their obligations within the social hierarchy

• In other words, effective behaviour is determined by your ability to “fit in”, coordinate your actions with others.

• When one doesn’t fulfill their social role, they impact their collective “worth” or “lose face”

• Tend to have a stronger reliance on the environment (the close relationships around them) to determine their self worth and appropriate behaviour

• Reliance on group leaders or the group as a whole to regulate anti-social behavior rather than legal or self-determinations (between people involved)

• Tend to be very competitive and confrontational with members outside close groups (as a means of exerting social status/value to the group)

Victimhood culture

• Victimhood culture is a social environment where individuals prioritize and define themselves by their suffering and victimization, often seeking moral authority and redress for perceived injustices.

What are the causes/environments where honour cultures would be most common?

■ Society

– Economic insecurity

– Distrust and unreliability of law enforcement

(degree of lawlessness)

– Government Institutions are not trusted

– Rule of law is not very strong

■ Individual

– Shun the use of third parties to resolve conflicts

when available

■ lower their reputation by relying on someone else to handle their affairs

Explain why dignity cultures would experience higher economic prosperity vs an honour or face culture?

■ Trust in institutions of authority (law enforcement, government)

■ Reliance on third parties to resolve conflicts and condemn the

notion of “taking the law into their own hands).

■ Practice restraint and understanding of these third party institutions (use them as quickly, quietly and rarely as possible)

■ Not using these intuitions as a threat (as opposed to honour and victimhood cultures)

How do honour cultures influence the workplace?

■ honour cultures tend to devote less resources into workplace well-being, social supports, and

■ Leads to poorer performance and a tendency to further disinvestment into workplace well-being practices and initiatives

■ Employees are discouraged to use third parties or some other matter to protect themselves (discourage unionization)

■ Need for mental health assistance (stress-leave, PTSD) put aside out of fear of being socially stigmatized (sign of weakness)

Which conflict resolution type is most common among honour, face, and dignity cultures?

1. Honor Cultures: Direct confrontation or physical violence to restore or defend honor is more common.

2. Face Cultures: Indirect methods, such as using intermediaries or avoiding direct confrontation, to preserve face are prevalent.

3. Dignity Cultures: Emphasis on negotiation, mediation, and compromise to address conflicts while maintaining respect for all parties is typical.

What are the benefits to apologizing as far as method towards resolving a conflict in a workplace setting?

– An apology can improve the odds of settlement

– Reduce legal and other costs

– Save time

– Mitigate the fallout from damaged reputations and relationships

Method:

• restore trust, facilitate communication, preserve relationships, promote accountability, and reduce tension, making it a valuable tool for conflict resolution.

Describe the six steps involved with offering a proper apology?

1. Start with specific words

■ Use words such as “I’m sorry” or “I apologize.”

– “I regret” or “I feel bad about what happened” often results in non-apologies

– Puts the focus on you and your emotions, when should be on the wronged person’s feelings.

2. Emphasize certain words

■ Avoid conditional phrases, like “if”, “may”, or “but”

■ “I” or “my” while apologizing

■ Describe the behaviour explicitly

3. Accept responsibility

■ Focus on taking responsibility for the parts of the conflict that they’re responsible for without blaming or explaining what the other person did

4. Acknowledge the impact of your behavior.

■ People want to feel understood

■ Acknowledging other’s emotions as real and the role you played in creating them, you express empathy for them and demonstrate their value to you.

5. Commit to not repeating the offense.

• commit to tempering the behavior that the other person found troubling

6. Stop talking – try to end the apology without adding further explanation or rationalizing as to why you behaved the way you did. This tends to focus the attention on your feelings instead of the other person. It also allows the other person to speak and share how they feel

What are the 5 reasons why a person may not apologize?

1. People won’t apologize if they feel they don’t need to.

– If the offender feels their actions were justified or the situation was out of their control, then they won’t be remorseful enough to apologize, even if the offended sees the situation differently.

2. The offender may not be concerned with the relationship, especially if they have little empathy or compassion for the other person.

– Rude behaviour towards service workers - the power relationship is towards the customer with little regard towards the feelings of the service worker.

3. Fear that apologizing will be both humiliating and proof that they aren’t a good, moral person - Guilt is when we feel we have done something bad. Shame is when we feel we are bad – struggling to separate the behaviour from our identity and focus on doing whatever is necessarily to avoid feeling this and become defensive and deflecting responsibility.

4. By apologizing, they may feel that the victim may take advantage of the situation

– Usually have the opposite effect: They reduce feelings of guilt and shame, help promote self-forgiveness, and heal relationships.

5. We have a tendency to overestimate the negative consequences of apologizing and underestimate the benefits of apologizing.

Why do some people tend to see an apology as humiliating and proof that they are not a good person (therefore, have a strong reluctance to apologize)?

■ Fear that apologizing will be both humiliating and proof that they aren’t a good, moral person - Guilt is when we feel we have done something bad. Shame is when we feel we are bad – struggling to separate the behaviour from our identity and focus on doing whatever is necessarily to avoid feeling this and become defensive and deflecting responsibility.

How do honour, face, and dignity cultures impact the negotiation processes and agreements? How can one overcome these issues?

Honor cultures may lead to competitive negotiations focused on saving face. Face cultures may require indirect approaches to maintain harmony. Dignity cultures prioritize respect and collaboration, leading to more cooperative negotiations. To overcome these differences, understand cultural norms, build trust, adapt communication styles, focus on interests, and consider mediation.

Explain why conflict/arguing allows use to have a survival advantage over those who are unable to argue/reason according to the argumentative theory of reason

According to the argumentative theory of reason, conflict and arguing allow us to persuade others, gain social influence, and access resources, providing a survival advantage by helping us form alliances, negotiate conflicts, and gain status. This ability to engage in reasoned argumentation enables groups to make better decisions and navigate social environments more effectively.

Provide the explanation/reason behind why we possess decision/cognitive biases such as confirmation bias according to the argumentative theory of reason

Confirmation bias and other cognitive biases exist because they can be advantageous in social interactions, helping us win arguments and gain social influence by presenting information that supports our beliefs. These biases are seen as strategic tools that have evolved to help us navigate the social world effectively.

What are the issues that arise if we tend to agree with people often? If we tend to disagree often?

Accept everything that people tell you (open)

– Consequences: you won’t have stable beliefs or be assertive. More likely to be manipulated by other to benefit themselves at my expense – a behaviour that would not align with survival

Reject everything that doesn’t confirm to your own beliefs (Ultra Dogmatic) – beliefs are stable, attract collaborators who think the way you do

– Consequences: Tend to reject arguments and evidence that may work in the

favour of the person’s goals

Identify and describe the six different persuasion techniques? Provide two examples for each technique

1. Reciprocity: This technique involves giving something to someone with the expectation that they will feel obligated to return the favor.

- Example 1: A salesperson offers a free sample of a product, hoping the customer will feel obligated to make a purchase.

- Example 2: A friend invites you to their party, so you feel obligated to invite them to yours.

2. Scarcity: This technique involves creating a sense of urgency by highlighting the limited availability of a product or opportunity.

- Example 1: An advertisement states, "Limited time offer! Only 10 units left at this price!"

- Example 2: A store announces a "One-day sale" to create a sense of urgency and encourage immediate purchases.

3. Authority: This technique involves using the influence of an expert or authority figure to persuade others.

- Example 1: A dentist recommends a particular brand of toothpaste in a commercial.

- Example 2: A celebrity endorses a skincare product, suggesting that it is effective and trustworthy.

4. Commitment and Consistency: This technique involves getting someone to agree to a small request initially, making it more likely that they will agree to a larger request later on.

- Example 1: A charity asks for a small donation, then follows up with a request for a larger donation.

- Example 2: A salesperson asks you to sign up for a free trial, then later asks you to purchase a subscription.

5. Liking: This technique involves persuading someone by appealing to their sense of liking or similarity to the persuader.

- Example 1: A salesperson compliments a customer's taste in fashion, then recommends a clothing item.

- Example 2: A politician emphasizes shared values and experiences with voters to gain their support.

6. Social validation: This technique involves showing that others, especially similar others, have already agreed or engaged in the desired behavior.

- Example 1: A hotel website displays a message stating, "85% of guests who viewed this room booked it."

- Example 2: A restaurant places a sign outside saying, "Join the hundreds of satisfied customers who have dined with us."

Explain the difference between ”door in the face”, “foot in the door” “and “low-ball technique differ”?

1. Door-in-the-Face Technique: This technique involves making a large request that is likely to be rejected, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. The idea is that the person is more likely to agree to the second request after having already rejected the larger one.

- Example: A charity asks for a $100 donation, expecting it to be refused, and then follows up with a request for a $20 donation, which is more likely to be accepted.

2. Foot-in-the-Door Technique: This technique involves getting someone to agree to a small request first, then following up with a larger request. The initial agreement to the small request makes it more likely that the person will agree to the larger request later on.

- Example: A salesperson asks a customer to sign up for a free trial of a product, then follows up with a request to purchase a subscription to the product.

3. Low-Ball Technique: This technique involves initially offering a product or service at a lower price than is actually intended, then raising the price once the person has committed to making a purchase. The idea is that the person is more likely to go through with the purchase even after the price is raised.

- Example: A car salesperson offers a customer a car at a lower price than the dealership is willing to sell it for, then raises the price after the customer has agreed to buy the car.

What are the two conditions that affect the success/failure of using Social Validation technique to persuade

• Uncertainty: People look to similar others to decide what to do

• Similarity: The more people who perform the behavior, the more convincing

What is definition of organizational diversity? What is the issue with it?

Organizational diversity refers to the inclusion of individuals from different backgrounds, such as ethnicity, gender, and age, to create a more representative workforce. An issue with diversity in organizations is that it can lead to conflict, higher turnover rates, and decreased attachment among members of diverse work units due to differences in attitudes and the tendency for individuals to be attracted to those who are similar to them.

Describe the three levels of diversity and provide and example for each

Surface-level diversity includes visible characteristics like race or sex. An example is age diversity in a team.

Deep-level diversity encompasses nonobservable traits like values. An example is cognitive diversity, where team members have different perspectives.

Hidden diversity includes concealed traits like sexual orientation. An example is religious beliefs that may not be immediately apparent.

What is illusory correlation and how does it explain why country of origins does not play a significant role in terms of explaining the difference in values and beliefs between people from different countries.

Illusory correlation: Tendency to associate other groups/ethnic’ characteristics in ways that magnify the differences between groups/ethnicities

In other words, people in different social groups may endorse the same values but associate different behaviors with them (e.g. Turkish people value equality as much as people in other European countries, but endorse gender equality less strongly – which may be seen by outsiders as not valuing equality)

Why does cognitive diversity (CD) better define the differences between people than identify/surface level diversity

People of different races, genders, social classes, national origins, etc. will inherently have had different life experiences, which inform how they see the world and thus their approach to problems. When this kind of identity diversity contributes to more cognitive diversity.

What is homophilic diversity/tendency

Homophilic diversity/tendency – we like and trust people who are similar to us and/or who act and think in a familiar and predictable way. We claim we like diversity but our nature/instincts doesn’t like uncertainty and unpredictability

Why our brain/mind tend to look toward comfort and predictability?

Our brain tends to seek comfort and predictability due to the preference for efficiency and safety. This is driven by our instinct to avoid uncertainty and unpredictability, as mentioned in the excerpt. The mind's inclination towards quick judgments and biases, known as system 1 thinking, contributes to the desire for a familiar and safe environment. Therefore, the brain's natural tendency is to gravitate towards what is known and predictable to conserve energy and reduce potential risks.

How do organization create “comfort zones” and how does it impact how employees behave in an organization? How do overcome the issues that arise by organizations “comfort zones”?

Comfort zone – our minds prefer being efficient (quick judgements biases/system 1 thinking) and safe (certainty)

 Organizations create a comfort zone (norms) of what behaviour is accepted (rewarded) and not tolerated (punished)

 What is your natural (authentic) vs what is expected. How much do you have to pretend to be belong?

 The larger the gap between authentic and what is expected, the more likely you are not being cognitively diverse (and the workplace is encouraging a specific type of thinking)

 Solution: To expand comfort zone to be accepting of different behaviours, perspectives, decisions.

What are the differences between homogeneous and heterogenous groups? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? Provide an example

Homogeneous groups – group members have similar characteristics and thinking processes (low cognitive diversity)

Heterogeneous groups – group members have dissimilar characteristics and thinking processes (often high cognitive diversity)

 Homogeneous groups (low cognitive diversity) may initially outperform heterogeneous, cognitively diverse groups

 Over time cognitively diverse groups benefit from a wider range of ideas to choose from when solving a problem.

 Multiple perspectives generated by the cognitive diversity of group members.

 It takes time for members of diverse groups to work together effectively due to their unfamiliarity with one another’s thinking style, which explains why homogeneous groups outperform heterogeneous groups in the early stages of group functioning

For example, a team of engineers (homogeneous group) may quickly agree on a technical solution, but a team consisting of engineers, designers, and marketers (heterogeneous group) may generate more creative and comprehensive solutions in the long run.

What area of the problem solving process are heterogeneous (high CD) groups proficient and what areas are homogeneous (low CD) groups proficient

Heterogeneous (high cognitive diversity) groups excel during the exploration phase of problem solving due to the multiple perspectives generated by diverse group members. On the other hand, homogeneous (low cognitive diversity) groups are proficient in setting an agreed direction and executing, particularly with the right leadership.

Describe the similarity-attaction theory and provide an example

The similarity-attraction theory suggests that individuals are drawn to others who share similar attitudes. For example, in a workplace setting, employees may naturally gravitate towards colleagues who have similar work ethics or values. This can lead to the formation of like-minded teams where individuals feel more comfortable and connected with those who think and express themselves in a familiar way.

Describe the social cognitive theory and provide an example

Social cognitive theory explains how people categorize others based on visible characteristics like race, sex, and age. These categories lead to automatic beliefs and stereotypes. For example, when reviewing resumes, assumptions based on a person's name (gender, race, age) showcase how categorization influences perceptions and judgments.

What is sterotyping?

Stereotypes are related to this categorization, and refer to the overgeneralization of characteristics about large groups.

Describe the social identity theory and provide an example?

Social identity theory posits that individuals categorize others as belonging to either an in-group or an out-group. People tend to view in-group members as diverse, while out-group members are seen as more homogeneous. This can lead to in-group favoritism and sometimes derogation of out-group members. An example of this theory in action is when individuals show favoritism towards their own nationality in a sports competition, perceiving their team as diverse and unique, while viewing the opposing team as all the same.

How does social identity theory explain why we see our in-groups as diverse and out-groups as low diversity

Social identity theory explains that when we categorize people into in-groups and out-groups, we tend to perceive our in-group members as diverse because of the breadth of interactions we have with them, while we see out-group members as low diversity due to perceiving them as fitting stereotypes and having similar characteristics. This occurs because of the familiarity and varied interactions we have with in-group members compared to the limited interactions with out-group members.

Describe the Justification-suppression model and provide an example

The Justification-suppression model is a theory that explains prejudice as a two-step process where individuals hold prejudiced views but suppress them to conform to social norms. For example, a person might have negative stereotypes about a certain racial group but consciously suppresses these thoughts and behaves in a politically correct manner to avoid social backlash.

What is functional bias? How could this impact complex problem solving process such as initiating change in and organizations?

Functional bias refers to a lack of cognitive diversity within a team or organization, limiting their ability to see things differently, engage in various ways, or create new options. In the context of initiating change in organizations, functional bias can reduce the opportunity to strengthen propositions with diverse input, fail to represent the cognitive diversity of the employee population, and diminish the impact of change initiatives. This can hinder the organization's ability to effectively address complex problems and adapt to new situations.

What is an issue with implementing inclusion programs?

An issue with implementing inclusion programs is that they can inadvertently highlight differences between genders and ethnicities, potentially leading to divisions and exacerbating social tensions. This can be counterproductive to the intended goal of fostering inclusivity and diversity in the workplace.

What is the authenticity paradox

There is much talk of authentic leadership, i.e., leaders being themselves. However, it perhaps it is even more important that leaders focus on enabling others to be themselves

What are the likely behaviours for a team that has low/high cognitive diversity and low/high psychological safety (know the various behaviours you would likely see in each of the four quadrants)?

What are the situations/types of problems that are best suited for teams with high levels of CD and why does high CD allows these groups to succeed in these situation?

Teams with high levels of cognitive diversity (CD) excel in solving complex problems. These problems are best suited for such teams because they require a wide range of perspectives and experiences to tackle the multifaceted nature of the issue. High CD allows these groups to succeed in these situations because it ensures that different viewpoints and approaches are considered, leading to a more comprehensive analysis and innovative solutions. In complex problem-solving, having diverse perspectives helps in accounting for the various dimensions of the problem, offering a broader range of solution options, and increasing the likelihood of finding the best approach.

What are some of the challenges having too much or too little CD?

Having too little cognitive diversity can lead to conformity, biased judgments, and groupthink. On the other hand, having too much cognitive diversity can result in conflict, tension, and difficulties in managing diverse teams effectively. Striking the right balance is crucial to harness the benefits of cognitive diversity while avoiding its pitfalls.

What are the various behaviours/biases that high CD can help overcome?

High Cognitive Diversity (CD) can help overcome behaviors/biases such as cognitive bias, strategic misrepresentation, planning fallacy, optimism bias, focalism, and groupthink. Cognitive diversity can protect organizations against poor judgments, distorted incentives, underestimating task completion time, excessive optimism, inward focus during stress, and flawed decision-making due to the need for agreement within a group.

What are the two dimensions that can be used to assess the degree of cognitive diversity possessed by a group?

Knowledge/Experience/Skills (vertical)

Mindset/ Viewpoint/ Attitude/ Frame Of Reference (horizontal)

What is sociotechnical system and provide an example?

• Focuses on the interaction between social and technical

elements within an organization. It recognizes that

organizations are not purely technical or social but a

combination of both.

• Emphasizes the need to design work systems that consider

both human and technological factors to optimize

performance, efficiency, and employee well-being.

ex: A hospital implements a new electronic health record system. Along with the software, they also introduce new training programs and workflows to help staff adapt. This approach integrates the technology and social aspects of work, creating a sociotechnical system that improves efficiency and employee satisfaction.

What is the sociotechnical system trying to achieve?

• Balancing the needs of the social and technical systems within organizations. The goal is to create a work environment that optimizes both the performance of the organization and the well-being of its employees.

Jessica apologizes for a disagreement with a colleague, but she adds, "I'm sorry, but I believe your approach was equally responsible for the conflict." What mistake in the apology is Jessica making, as per the information provided?

c) Shifting responsibility to the colleague

In a society heavily influenced by face culture, how might the reliance on social contexts impact conflict resolution between groups?

C) Rely on group decisions for resolution

in a workplace heavily influenced by dignity culture, an employee faces a severe offense. How might this individual strategically approach the situation, balancing personal principles with the need for resolution?

C) Subtly negotiate a compromise to avoid public conflict

How do the negotiation principles of "foot in the door," "door in the face," and "low-ball" differ?

B) "Foot in the door" involves starting with a small request, "door in the face" begins with a large request, and "low-ball" includes making a commitment and then changing the terms.

During a team meeting, Sarah admits to making a mistake that impacted the project. How should the team respond to enhance psychological safety?

c) The team appreciates Sarah's honesty and focuses on solutions.

Mark consistently refrains from offering ideas during brainstorming sessions, fearing negative judgment from his colleagues. How does Mark's behavior align with the concept of impression management?

A) Mark is focused on self-protection by managing his image

What are the four different Conflict behaviours? What are different methods to overcome each of these conflict behaviours

CRITICISM

A complaint relates to a specific incident or issue,

for example, “I don’t like it when you don’t keep

me updated on a project.”

A criticism accusing or attacks the person not the

behaviour, for example, “You’re a bad

communicator, Your not a good team member.

Why did you do it that way?”

Criticism can occur when employees don’t know

how to give each other constructive feedback

• SOL:

  • Use ”I” statements instead of “You are this” or

    “you do this” can come across as accusatory

    Generalisations like ‘you never’ and ‘you always’

    are also unhelpful for the same reason

CONTEMPT

If an employee is disrespecting, ridiculing or talking

down to a co-working, they are showing signs of

contempt.

Contempt is a feeling of superiority and making

others feel inferior

Gossiping, sarcasm, belittling remarks, eye-rolling,

are associated with contempt

If you’re first thought of a person is negative, you

likely have contempt towards them

It is the most damaging – tendency to inflict

punishment or dominate

• SOL:

  • Effective recognition, gratitude, and appreciation

    of others of co-workers

  • Displaying a sense of gratitude through

    recognition of a job well done can work wonders.

  • Important to recognize and address it since it is

    can be an on-going/long term source of conflict

    (contempt is the one behaviour (of the four) that

    is the most difficult to change)

DEFENSIVENESS

Responding to an accusation or criticism in a

defensive manner.

When feeling defensive, person is unlikely to be

listening or responsive to feedback and focused

on defending themselves.

• SOL: LIDTEN AND VALIDATE

  • Avoid criticism

  • Active Listening/asking questions

  • Take responsibility for your role

  • Validate the other person’s feelings that would

    make them defensive

STONEWALLING

Stonewalling is often a response to contempt.

An employee who is stonewalling someone will

withdraw from a conversation or relationship, not

sharing ideas or raising voice

Refusing to help, not responding to

emails/requests

Often when our emotions get overwhelming, we

react by shutting down

• SOL: COOLING OFF PERIOD

  • If an employee begins to stonewall, the best

    option is to take a break from the conversation for

    the time being to allow the person space to calm

    down.

    Forcing someone who doesn’t want to engage will

    likely make the situation worse

    Practice exercises that will calm your emotions

    and self-sooth

    Important to approach the conversation once

    both parties are calmed down

What is the difference between a complaint and criticism?

Criticism is a destructive global attack on a person's personality, childhood, history, or character.

Complaints, however, are about a person's behaviour a specific thing, time, and place. With complaints there is no attack, but there is emotion and a direct focus on the actual problem.

He's always criticizing the service [=saying the service is bad] at nice restaurants.

You shouldn't criticize [=talk about the faults of] your children.

She was tired of being criticized by her older sister.

He criticized her looks so she dumped him.

She always complained that it was too hot in the summer.

The guests complained to the hotel manager about the condition of their room. [=They said they were unhappy with the condition of their room.]

The kids were complaining (to each other) about how much homework they had to do.

He complained of a headache last night and today he's got a fever.

Which one of the four has the most negative impact on a workplace? Why?

Contempt has the most negative impact on the workplace. Contempt involves expressing disdain, disrespect, or superiority toward others, often through sarcasm, cynicism, or belittling remarks.

Contempt is particularly damaging because it conveys a lack of regard for the other person's thoughts, feelings, or contributions. It can create a toxic and hostile work environment, erode trust and respect among team members, and damage relationships.

It can lead to increased conflict, decreased collaboration, and lower morale, ultimately impacting productivity and organizational effectiveness.