Crime and deviance

How do functionalists view crime and deviance?

Certain, limited amounts of crime are necessary for society.

What do functionalists see as the positive functions of crime and deviance?

• Reaffirms boundaries,

• unites members,

• social change.

How do functionalists see crime and deviance as reaffirming boundaries?

Durkheim suggests crime produces a reaction from society, reinforcing members commitment to the shared norms and values. For example, the courtroom dramatises wrongdoing and publically stigmatises the offender, reaffirming values of the law-abiding majority and discouraging others from rule breaking.

How do functionalists see crime and deviance as uniting members?

Durkheim suggests that when particularly horrific crimes have been committed, the entire community draws together in shared outrage, strengthening the sense of belonging. For example, in New York after 9/11.

How do functionalists see crime and deviance as a force for social change?

Durkheim suggests that all change starts with an act of deviance. For example, Nelson Mandela opposed and helped to overturn the racist apartheid system in South Africa.

What functionalist theories show the negative causes of crime and deviance?

• Strain Theory,

• Status Frustration,

• Three Subcultures.

What is the Strain Theory of the cause of crime and deviance?

Merton suggests crime and deviance is the result of strain between the goals that a culture encourages individuals to achieve, and what the institutional structure of society allows them to achieve legitimately. For example, in a class-based society, those in lower classes don’t have the opportunity to succeed. As a result, they may turn to crime as a means of achieving the goals their culture encourages.

What is the Status Frustration theory of the cause of crime and deviance?

Cohen focused on deviance among working-class boys. He argues they face anomie in the middle-class dominated school system due to cultural deprivation. This leads to status frustration so the boys may resolve this by forming or joining a delinquent subculture. For example, the alternative status hierarchy of the subculture is achievable.

What is the ‘Three Subcultures’ theory on the cause of crime and deviance?

Cloward and Ohlin explain the different ways subcultures respond to lack of legitimate opportunities.

• Criminal subcultures - provide an apprenticeship for a career in crime.

• Conflict subcultures - loosely organised gangs provide a release for young men’s frustrations.

• Retreatist subcultures - illegal drug use.

How do Marxists view crime and deviance?

They see the structure of capitalist society as explaining crime.

What do Marxists see as the causes of crime and deviance?

• Criminogenic capitalism,

• selective law making,

• selective law enforcement.

How do Marxists see criminogenic capitalism as causing crime?

Gordon suggests crime is a rational response to the capitalist system and hence is found in all social classes. Capitalist exploitation of the working class is particularly damaging, which may give rise to crime. For example, poverty may mean crime is the only way the working class can survive. Moreover, the mentality of greed in capitalist society encourages capitalists to commit white collar and corporate crimes, such as tax evasion.

How do Marxists see selective law making as causing crime and deviance?

Marxists see lawmaking as only serving the interests of the bourgeoisie. Chambliss argues laws to protect private property are the cornerstone of the capitalist economy. For example, there are few laws that seriously challenge the unequal distribution of wealth.

How do Marxists see selective law enforcement as causing crime and deviance?

Marxists suggest that all classes commit crime, but there is selective enforcement of the law. Reiman suggests that the more likely a crime is to be committed by higher class people, the less likely it is to be treated as a criminal offence. For example, there is a disproportionately high rate of prosecutions for the kind of ‘street crimes’ the working class typically commit, such as burglary. Yet with crimes committed mostly by the higher classes, such as tax evasion, the criminal justice system takes a more forgiving view.

How do Neo-Marxists view crime and deviance?

They combine the ideas of traditional Marxism with interactionist approaches, suggesting crime is a meaningful action and conscious choice.

What are the Neo-Marxist theories on crime and deviance?

• Subcultural Theory,

• The New Criminology.

What is the Subcultural Theory on the cause of crime and deviance?

Brake suggests resistance of working-class youths is expressed through subcultures. For example, the clothes they wear and the language they use expresses their disdain for capitalism. This resistance acts as an illusion that they have solved their problems.

What is the The New Criminology applied to crime and deviance?

Taylor et al produced The New Criminology, a fully social theory of crime and deviance which looked at wider capitalist society that generates the circumstances of crime and police response to it. For example, Hall looked at the moral panic about mugging and saw it as an ideological attempt to distract attention from the failings of capitalism. This incorporates interactionism/labelling as well as Marxism.

How has labelling theory been applied to crime and deviance?

Most people commit deviant and criminal acts, but only some people are caught and stigmatised for it.

What labelling theories have been applied to crime and deviance?

• Typifications,

• primary and secondary deviance,

• deviancy amplification spiral.

How do typifications provide an explanation for crime and deviance?

Cicourel found that officers’ typifications (common sense theories and stereotypes on the typical delinquent) led them to concentrate on certain ‘types’. For example, working class areas and people fitted the police typifications more closely, leading to police patrolling working class areas more intensively, resulting in more arrests, confirming their stereotypes.

How does primary and secondary deviance provide an explanation for crime and deviance?

Lemert suggests primary deviance refers to deviant acts that have not been publically labelled, and secondary deviance is labelled. Being caught and publically labelled as a criminal can involve being stigmatised, shamed, or excluded. Once an individual is labelled, others may come to see them only in terms of the label. This becomes their master status (controlling identity that overrides all others). This may lead to a self fulfilling prophecy.

How does the deviancy amplification spiral provide an explanation for crime and deviance?

The deviancy amplification spiral describes the process where the attempt to control deviance leads to an increase in the level of deviance. More and more control produces more and more deviance, in an escalating spiral. For example, Cohen studies the societal reaction to the ‘mods and rockers’. Press exaggeration and distorted reporting began a moral panic, leading to moral entrepreneurs calling for a ‘crackdown’, leading to a police response of arresting more youths and imposing harsher penalties.

What are the realist approaches?

A response to the apparent rise in crime in the 1970s and 80s. They see crime as a very real problem and intend to provide practical policies to tackle crime.

How do right realists view crime and deviance?

They see the welfare state and a breakdown in informal and formal social controls as the main causes of crime.

What do right realists see as the causes of crime and deviance?

• Biological differences,

• socialisation,

• rational choice.

How do right realists see biological differences as the cause of crime?

Wilson and Herrnstein suggest biological differences between individuals make some people innately more strongly predisposed to commit crime than others. For example, personality traits such as aggressiveness, risk taking, and low impulse control.

How do right realists see socialisation as the cause of crime?

Murray suggests the crime rate is increasing because of a growing underclass who are defined by deviant behaviour and faile to socialise their children properly. For example, the welfare state’s ‘generous revolution’ allows people to become dependent on the state, leading to the growth of lone parent families. Murray suggests lone mothers are ineffective socialisation agents, especially for boys. A lack of a male role model means young males turn to other, often delinquent, role models on the street.

How do right realists suggest rational choice is the cause of crime?

Clarke suggests that the decision to commit crime is a choice based on rational calculation of the likely consequences. If perceived rewards of crime appear to be greater than the perceived costs, or if the rewards of crime appear greater than those of non-criminal behaviour, people are more likely to offend. The crime rate has increased because the perceived costs of crime are low. For example, there is little risk of being caught and punishments are lenient.

What ways do right realists suggest crime should be tackled?

• Zero tolerance policy,

• target hardening.

How do right realists suggest a zero tolerance policy will tackle crime?

Wilson and Kelling came up with the broken window analogy: if a single window in an area is left unrepaired, an area can deteriorate. They suggest police should concentrate on areas beginning to deteriorate and exercise a zero tolerance policy to prevent the area rapidly deteriorating.

How do right realists suggest target hardening will tackle crime?

Cohen and Felson suggested in order to reduce crime it had to be made harder to commit crime through removing the conditions needed for crime to take place: availability of opportunity, availability of target, lack of capable guardians. For example, improving locks and alarms, and CCTV to monitor public places.

How do left realists view crime and deviance?

They see inequality as the main underlying cause of crime.

What do left realists see as the causes of crime?

• Relative deprivation,

• marginalisation,

• subcultures.

How do left realists see relative deprivation as the cause of crime?

Lea and Young suggest that people are now more aware of relative deprivation due to the media and advertising, which raise everyone’s expectations for material possessions. Those who can’t afford them may resort to crime instead.

How do left realists see marginalisation as the cause of crime?

Lea and Young suggest that marginal groups generally lac the organisation to represent their interests in political life, and thus their concerns aren’t taken seriously. For example, the unemployed and those in casual work are unlikely to be unionised. This means they may turn to violence and rioting as forms of political action.

How do left realists see subcultures as the cause of crime?

Young suggests that opportunities to achieve the goals of society legitimately are blocked for certain groups, so they resort to crime instead. For example, he found that there are ghettos in the USA where there is full immersion in the American Dream, but this was achieved through crime rather than legitimate means.

What ways do left realists suggest crime should be tackled?

• Policing,

• tackling structural causes.

How do left realists suggest crime can be tackled through policing?

Kinsey et al argue police clear up rates are too low to act as a deterrent to crime and police spend too little time actually investigating crime. This leads to the police losing public support, meaning the flow of information from the public dries up and police depend on ‘swamping’ an area with stop and search tactics. This alienates communities, leading to a vicious cycle where locals don’t trust police and don’t provide information so the police resort to military policing. Instead, the police should improve relationships with local communities by spending more time investigating crime, changing their priorities (over policing of minor drug crime, under police racist attacks and domestic violence), and involve the public in policing policy.

How do left realists suggest crime can be tackled through focus on structural causes?

Young argues that to tackle crime major structural changes are needed to the current unequal structure of society. For example, dealing with inequality of opportunity, unfairness of rewards, discrimination, unemployment, housing, and community facilities.

What statistic shows the difference between male and female crime?

4/5 of convicted offenders in England and Wales are male.

What theories suggest women commit less crime?

• Sex Role Theory,

• Control Theory,

• Masculinity Theory.

How does Sex Role Theory suggest women commit less crime?

Parsons suggests differences in crime and deviance are due to gender roles in the conventional nuclear family. Women are less likely to commit crime because there are core elements of the female role that limit their ability and opportunity to do so. For example, because most child-rearing is carried out by mothers, girls have a clear role model to follow who emphasises caring and support. Whereas boys have less access to male role models in the home so are more likely to turn to all male gangs for masculine identity.

How does Control Theory suggest women commit less crime?

Heidensohn takes a feminist perspective, suggesting females are less likely to commit crimes because they are subjected to closer levels of social control than men are. For example, women are partly controlled through lack of time because of their primary responsibility of childcare and housework. This keeps them at home for more hours than men, restricting their opportunity to commit crimes outside the home.

How does Masculinity Theory suggest women commit less crime?

Messerschmidt suggests men may commit crime in order to achieve masculinity. For example, men who have no power at work may combat this through committing crimes that will gain them material, social, and sexual success.

What theories suggest women don’t commit less crime?

• Chivalry Thesis,

• gender deals,

• Liberation Thesis.

How does Chivalry Thesis suggest women don’t commit less crime?

Pollack suggests it isn’t that women commit less crime than men, it is that they are less likely to be charged or convicted of the crime. For example, the criminal justice system is made up of mostly me who are brought up to be chivalrous towards women.

How does the idea of gender deals suggest women don’t commit less crime?

Carlen suggests that women turn to crime when they have enjoyed little success in society and have little to lose by turning to crime. For example, the gender deal involves accepting marriage, gaining fulfilment through family life. The women in Carlen’s study had little experience of a happy family life, so had little to lose by rejecting this deal in turn for crime.

How does Liberation Thesis suggest women don’t commit less crime?

Denscombe suggests that females are becoming increasingly likely to become involved in crime due to changing gender roles. For example, he suggests that women have become as likely as males to engage in risk-taking behaviour.

What statistic shows the relationship between ethnicity and crime?

Black people make up 3% of the population, but 11% of the prison population.

What theories suggest that ethnic minorities commit more crime?

• Locality Theory,

• Triple Quandary,

• political protest.

How does Locality Theory suggest ethnic minorities commit more crimes?

Waddington et al applied the ‘zone of transition’ theory to modern UK cities, suggesting crime rates are higher in areas with dense, low income housing. This often overlaps with high ethnic minority populations. For example, Tower Hamlets in London is characterised by high crime rates and ethnic diversity.

How does Triple Quandary suggest ethnic minorities commit more crime?

Sewell identifies 3 risk factors which may be responsible for relatively high levels of crime amongst black boys:

• Large numbers of single mother families amongst black families mean boys look to their community for role models, such as gang leaders.

• Negative experiences of white culture mean black boys may hold resentment for school, policing, and employer racism.

• The media influence of hip hop and rap stars construct a hyper masculinity based on violence and sexual conquest, and suggest status can be achieved through acquiring designer clothing and jewellery.

How does the idea of political protest suggest ethnic minorities commit more crime?

Gilroy sees crime in ethnic minorities as a legacy of the struggle against White dominance in former colonies. For example, ethnic minorities may use crime as a form of resistance against White-dominated authorities and police forces.

What theories suggest ethnic minorities don’t commit more crime?

• Institutional racism,

• over-policing,

• the myth of black criminality.

How does institutional racism suggest ethnic minorities don’t commit more crime?

The Macpherson Report on the police investigation of the racist murder of the black teenager Stephen Lawrence concluded there was institutional racism within the Metropolitan police. For example, cases of officers sharing racist messages on social media demonstrated the individual prejudices and discriminatory actions in the police force.

How does over-policing suggest ethnic minorities don’t commit more crime?

Phillips and Bowling suggest that ethnic minorities are deliberately targeted for stop and search, Black people are nearly 5 times more likely than White people to be stopped and searched. For example, in high discretion stops, police act without specific intelligence, meaning officers act purely off stereotypes, making disproportionality and discrimination more likely.

How does the myth of black criminality suggest ethnic minorities don’t commit more crime?

Gilroy suggests that the idea of black criminality is a myth created by racist stereotypes. For example, the police and criminal justice system act on these racist stereotypes meaning ethnic minorities come to be criminalised and therefore appear in greater numbers in the official statistics.

What statistic shows the relationship between social class and crime?

In 2006 and 2007, 60% of prisoners had been claiming benefits when sentenced.

What theories suggest that the working class commit more crime?

• Subcultural theories,

• underclass theory,

• Strain Theory.

How do subcultural theories suggest the working class commit more crime?

Miller suggests that different social groups develop values based on their experiences. For the working class, this involves toughness and focus on immediate rewards to help them cope with the challenges in their lives. These community values can lead to criminal behaviours.

How does the underclass theory suggest that the working class commit more crime?

Murray argues the underclass has developed a culture of dependency on welfare in which single parent mothers raise children who have little respect for the law because they lack suitable adult role models. For example, he suggests over-generous welfare benefits encourage a culture that values laziness and irresponsible behaviour, leading to criminality.

How does Strain Theory suggest that the working class commit more crime?

Merton suggests that for many working class individuals systemic barriers such as limited access to education and stable employment mean that conformity is unattainable. This means they may be pushed toward deviant behaviours that promise material success, such as dealing drugs.

What theories suggest the working class don’t commit more crime?

• Selective law making,

• selective law enforcement,

• labelling.

How does selective law making suggest the working class don’t commit more crime?

Chambliss suggests that laws primarily serve to protect the property and interest of the ruling class. For example, in the 2008 financial crisis, governments introduced laws and measure aimed at stabilising the financial system, largely protecting banks and corporate executives whilst leaving working class homeowners to face economic hardship.

How does selective law enforcement suggest the working class don’t commit more crime?

Becker suggests that law enforcement disproportionately targets the working class by focusing on crimes that are more visible and easier to prosecute. For example, harsh punishments are given out for offences such as vandalism, shoplifting, and public disorder, but crimes such as tax evasion and corporate fraud are treated with greater leniency.

How does labelling theory suggest the working class don’t commit more crime?

Labelling theory suggests people’s behaviour is shaped by the labels society assigns to them, for the working class this often involves being stereotyped as ‘criminal’. For example, if a working class individual commits vandalism, they are more likely to be arrested and face harsh punishment because they are already viewed as ‘criminal’. Chambliss references this in his study of two juvenile gangs in America. The ‘Saints’ were from a middle class background and were able to get away with far more serious offences, such as drinking and driving, whereas the ‘Roughnecks’ were working class and did not get away with minor offences, such as petty theft and minor assaults on one another.

What theories recognise white collar crime as a problem?

• Strain Theory,

• Edgework Theory,

• Rational Choice Theory.

How does Strain Theory apply to white collar crime?

Merton suggests even wealthy or successful individuals may experience relative deprivation. For example, someone with a high-paying job may still feel pressure to earn more than their peers, and therefore turn to crimes such as fraud and embezzlement to succeed.

How does Edgework Theory apply to white collar crime?

Katz suggests that the adrenaline rush and sense of superiority they experience can be just as motivating as the financial rewards. For example, in crimes such as embezzlement, the thrill is not solely about commiting the act, but also about outsmarting the system.

How does Rational Choice Theory apply to white collar crime?

Clarke suggests people make calculated decisions about whether to engage in crime by weighing the potential benefits against the risks and consequences. This explains white collar crime because it often appears rational to offenders. For example, white collar criminals are prosecuted far less often than those who commit blue collar crime, and when prosecuted punishments include short jail sentences, fines, or orders to repay stolen amounts. The low risk of punishment makes white collar crimes and attractive option.

What ways does media distort representations of crime?

• Manufactures reality,

• encourages stereotypes,

• law of opposites.

How does the media manufacture the reality of crime?

Cohen and Young suggest that crime news presents a manufactured picture of society. News is the outcome of a social process in which some potential stories are selected while others are rejected. Reiner suggests that there are specific news values applying to crime stories. For example, violence and unexpectedness. This means the media gives disproportionately large coverage to violent, sexual, and drug related crimes, and underrepresents crimes that lack excitement factor, such as property crimes.

How does the media encourage stereotypes?

In news coverage and true crime documentaries, ethnic minorities, young men, and the working class are often portrayed as perpetrators of crime, even though they’re more likely to be victims. This creates fear, leading to negative stereotyping and discrimination.

How does the law of opposites suggest the media distorts representations of crime?

Surette suggests fictional representations of crime, criminals, and victims follow ‘the law of opposites’, meaning they are the opposite of official statistics. For example, real life homicides mainly result from brawls and domestic disputes, in fictional media, they are the result of greed and calculation.

What ways has it been suggested media causes crime?

• Moral panic,

• hypodermic-syringe model,

• cybercrime.

How does the media causing moral panic lead to crime?

Moral panic on perceived crime leads to calls for a crackdown on the group. This may led to a self fulfilling prophecy that amplifies the problem, creating a deviance amplification spiral. For example, Cohen studied the moral panic surrounding the mods and rockers, finding that the media’s portrayal of events created a deviance amplification spiral by making the problem seem out of hand, leading to increased control responses from police, resulting in further marginalisation and stigmatisation of the mods and rockers.

How does the hypodermic-syringe model suggest the media causes crime?

The hypodermic-syringe model suggests media messages have a powerful effect on their audience, brainwashing them to accept certain viewpoints as facts. For example, people may replicate criminal acts, violence, and other behaviours they see in the media, believing them to be acceptable and appropriate. Wartella found an association between a tendency to watch violent television media and the likelihood of being convicted of violent offences.

How has development of the media led to cybercrime?

Jewkes suggests the internet creates opportunities to commit new crimes using new tools, such as software piracy.

What are the positive effects of media on crime?

• Helps solve crime,

• alerts public of dangers,

• puts pressure on government and police.

How can the media help solve crime?

Programmes such as Crimewatch can help solve crimes or locate suspects.

How does the media alert the public?

It informs them of the dangers of different types of crime, such as various types of fraud, allowing them to take precautions to prevent themselves becoming victims.

How does the media put pressure on the government and police?

Media campaigns on crime can put pressure on the government and police to take action. For example, over tax evasion by corporations.

What is globalisation?

The increasing interconnectedness of societies.

What types of crime have emerged as a result of globalisation?

• Drugs trade,

• terrorism,

• cyber crime.

How is the drugs trade related to globalisation?

The drug trade has grown exponentially due to globalisation. Drugs can be cultivated in developing countries at little cost, then sold to the western world at high prices. Moreover, the ease of transport, communication, and money transfer have made it easier for the drugs to be transported across the world to their target markets.

How is terrorism related to globalisation?

Globalisation has helped the expansion of terrorism. For example, technological and communication advancements have allowed for international terrorism and online radicalisation.

How is cyber crime related to globalisation?

Cybercrime has emerged as a new form of criminal activity due to globalisation. For example, cyber deception and theft, pornography, cyber trespass, and cyber violence.

What theories suggest globalisation has led to a rise in crime?

• Global criminal economy,

• risk consciousness,

• inequality of capitalism.

How does the idea of a global criminal economy suggest globalisation has led to a rise in crime?

Castells suggests that globalisation involves the development of networks that cut across national boundaries. This means there are now complex interconnections between a range of criminal networks, such as the American Mafia and Russian Mafia.

How does the idea of risk consciousness suggest globalisation has led to a rise in crime?

Beck suggests that the process of globalisation has led to a mentality of ‘risk consciousness’ where risk is seen as global. For example, immigration has given rise to anxieties among populations in Western countries about the risk of crime. The media may create moral panics, often fuelled by politicians. This leads to hate crimes against minorities.

How does the idea that capitalism is unequal suggest globalisation has led to rise in crime?

Taylor suggests that globalisation has created greater inequality and rising crime through how it has given free rein to market forces. This has allowed transnational corporations to switch manufacturing to low wage countries, producing job insecurity, unemployment, and poverty. Widening inequality encourages people, particularly the working class, to commit crime because lack of legitimate job opportunities causes the unemployed to look for illegitimate ones, such as the drugs trade. Moreover, Lash and Urry suggest elite groups are given criminal opportunities. For example, the deregulation of financial markets has created opportunity for the movement of funds around the globe to avoid taxation.

What ways can it be suggested that globalisation hasn’t led to a rise in crime?

• Awareness of risk,

• international cooperation,

• ‘new’ crimes have existed for centuries.

How does risk awareness suggest that globalisation hasn’t led to a rise in crime?

Beck’s idea of ‘risk society’ can have positive effects. For example, countries are more aware of risks created by globalisation, meaning they can attempt to produce global or at least international systems of justice, such as international courts.

How does international cooperation increasing suggest globalisation hasn’t led to a rise in crime?

Globalisation has led to the possibility of international agreements. For example, extradition means countries can agree to send criminals back to the country where they committed their crimes for prosecution.

How does the fact that most of the ‘new’ crimes have existed for centuries suggest that globalisation hasn’t led to a rise in crime?

Crimes such as the drug trade and human trafficking have existed for centuries.

What are the different approaches to defining green crime?

• Traditional criminology,

• transgressive criminology,

• global and manufactured risk.

What is the traditional criminology approach to defining green crime?

Sit and Emmons define Green crime as “an unauthorised act or omission that violates the law of a state or nation”, looking at the patterns and causes of law breaking. This wouldn’t consider global warming or acid rain as a crime because they don’t break any laws.

How does transgressive criminology define green crime?

It looks at the harm certain acts cause in order to determine criminality. White argues green crime is any action that harms the physical environment and animals within it even if no law has been broken.

How does the idea of global and manufactured risk define crime?

Beck suggests environmental crimes stem from human actions and it’s important to differentiate between natural environmental risks and those caused by human activity. For example, natural risks include earthquakes and hurricanes, but manufactured risks may include human actions that are linked to the severity of natural disasters.