ancient philosophical influences

Heraclitus and the Problem of Knowledge

• Heraclitus' View: "A man never steps into the same river twice."

• Flux: The world is in constant change, making knowledge elusive.

• Challenge: If everything changes, how can we gain knowledge?

Plato's Rationalism

• Definition: Knowledge is gained a priori, not through experience.

• Theory of Forms: The true reality consists of perfect, unchanging forms.

• Allegory of the Cave: Shadows (experience) vs. real world (forms).

Plato's Forms

• Concept: The world we perceive is imperfect; forms are perfect and eternal.

• Example: A beautiful sunset is an imperfect representation of the form of beauty.

• Knowledge: True understanding comes from reason, not sensory experience.

Criticism of Plato's Forms

• No Empirical Evidence: Forms cannot be observed.

• Plato's Defence: Empirical evidence is unreliable (shadows on the wall).

• Challenge: Is it valid to disregard evidence?

Aristotle's Empiricism

• Key Idea: Knowledge comes from experience.

• Causal Explanation: Understanding the causes of change.

• Rejection of Forms: They are unnecessary to explain the world.

Aristotle's Four Causes

• Material Cause: What something is made of (wood of a chair).

• Formal Cause: The essence or shape (chair's structure).

• Efficient Cause: The agent that creates it (carpenter).

• Final Cause: The purpose or goal (to be sat on).

Evaluation of Aristotle's Four Causes

• Modern Science Critique: Final cause (telos) is unscientific.

• Empirical Method Stands: Material and efficient causes remain valid.

• Scientific Progress: Aristotle's approach underdeveloped but foundational.

The Form of the Good

• Hierarchy: Form of the Good at the top, enabling understanding.

• Analogy: Sun in the cave analogy represents the Form of the Good.

• Impact: Leads to moral perfection and rule by philosopher-kings.

Criticism of the Form of the Good

• Aristotle: Goodness varies by context (medicine vs. military).

• Nietzsche: The Form of the Good is an illusion created for power.

• Challenge: Virtue, not knowledge, leads to goodness.

Aristotle's Prime Mover

• Explanation of Motion: The universe requires an unmoved mover.

• Pure Actuality: A being of pure thought causing motion by attraction.

• Rejection by Science: Newton's laws explain motion without a prime mover.

Evaluation of Aristotle's Prime Mover

• Modern Science: Motion does not require a special explanation.

• Kenny's Critique: Newton's inertia disproves Aristotle's argument.

• Legacy: Aristotle's empirical approach was valid but outdated.

Comparison of Plato & Aristotle

• Plato: Rationalism, reality of forms, scepticism of experience.

• Aristotle: Empiricism, reality of experience, causal explanations.

• Modern Relevance: Science favours Aristotle but builds on both.