unit two ap psych notes set

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge.

Memory Processes

Methods for encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Top-Down Processing

Perception influenced by prior knowledge and expectations.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception starts with sensory input to higher processing.

Perceptual Set

Mental predisposition to perceive one way.

Context Effects

Surrounding information influences perception of stimuli.

Cultural Context

Shared values and beliefs shaping perception.

Motivation

Internal drive prompting action toward goals.

Emotional Context

Emotional state affecting perception and reactions.

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice unexpected stimuli in focus.

Change Blindness

Inability to detect changes in visual scenes.

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to focus on one conversation in noise.

Gestalt Psychology

Study of perception as a whole, not parts.

Closure

Perception of incomplete figures as complete.

Figure and Ground

Distinguishing an object from its background.

Grouping

Organizing stimuli into coherent groups.

Proximity

Objects close together are perceived as a group.

Similarity

Similar items are grouped together in perception.

Attention

Concentration on specific stimuli or tasks.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks for organizing and interpreting information.

Perceptual Principles

Rules guiding how we perceive and interpret stimuli.

Perceptual Interference

New expectations can mislead past experiences.

Stroop Effect

Difficulty naming colors of words printed in different colors.

Perceptual Adaptation

Brain adjusts to altered sensory inputs over time.

Gestalt Psychology

Focuses on whole perception rather than individual parts.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception starts with sensory input, building understanding.

Gestalt Principles

Rules explaining how we perceive patterns and wholes.

Proximity Principle

Nearby figures are grouped together in perception.

Similarity Principle

Similar figures are perceived as belonging together.

Continuity Principle

We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than abrupt changes.

Closure Principle

Filling in gaps to create complete images.

Figure-Ground Relationship

Distinguishing figures from their backgrounds in perception.

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring distractions.

Cocktail Party Effect

Focusing on one conversation in a noisy environment.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice unexpected stimuli while focused.

Change Blindness

Noticing changes in visual stimuli when attention is diverted.

Choice Blindness

Failing to notice changes in choices or preferences.

Invisible Gorilla Experiment

Demonstrates inattentional blindness with unexpected stimuli.

Phase 1 of Perception

Selection process influenced by attention.

Environmental Changes

Adaptation to new routines or schedules over time.

Visual Stimuli

Elements that are perceived through sight.

Sensory Inputs

Data received through senses that inform perception.

Depth Perception

Ability to judge distance and see in 3D.

Visual Cliff

Experiment showing innate depth perception in infants.

Binocular Cues

Depth cues requiring both eyes for perception.

Retinal Disparity

Difference in images between two eyes for depth.

Convergence

Eyes turn inward to focus on nearby objects.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues requiring only one eye for perception.

Relative Clarity

Hazy objects appear farther than sharp ones.

Relative Size

Smaller objects perceived as farther away.

Texture Gradient

Smoother textures indicate greater distance.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines converge at a distance point.

Interposition

Object blocking another is perceived as closer.

Apparent Motion

Perception of movement from stationary images.

Motion Parallax

Closer objects move faster than distant ones.

Perceptual Constancy

Objects perceived as unchanged despite retinal changes.

Size Constancy

Actual size remains constant despite distance changes.

Brightness Constancy

Brightness perceived as constant under varying light.

Shape Constancy

Shape perceived as constant from different angles.

Color Constancy

Color perceived as consistent despite lighting changes.

Stroboscopic Movement

Illusion of motion from rapid image succession.

Phi Phenomenon

Perception of motion from stationary lights.

Autokinetic Effect

Stationary light appears to move in darkness.

Moon Illusion

Moon appears larger near horizon than overhead.

Size Constancy

Perception of object size relative to surroundings.

Ames Room

Illusion where room's shape distorts perceived size.

Ponzo Illusion

Lines appear different lengths due to background perspective.

Mueller Illusion

Lines with arrowheads misperceived in length.

Gestalt Principles

Rules for organizing sensory information into wholes.

Depth Perception

Ability to perceive distance and three-dimensionality.

Motion Perception

Interpretation of visual stimuli as movement.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge to interpret sensory information.

Perceptual Adaptation

Brain adjusts to changes in sensory input.

Stroboscopic Effect

Illusion of motion from rapidly shown images.

Phi Phenomenon

Perception of movement from blinking lights.

Concept

Mental grouping of similar objects or ideas.

Prototype

Best example of a category or concept.

Schema

Cognitive framework for organizing information.

Assimilation

Integrating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information.

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes for planning and decision-making.

Algorithm

Step-by-step procedure for solving problems.

Heuristic

Mental shortcut for problem-solving.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging based on similarity to prototypes.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on recent examples.

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems with familiar strategies.

Priming

Exposure to stimuli influences response to later stimuli.

Cognition

Mental processes for acquiring and understanding information.

Schemas

Mental frameworks for processing and interpreting information.

Prototypes

Best or typical example of a concept.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to fit new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step processes ensuring accurate problem-solving.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts for quick decision-making.

Framing

Presenting information to influence perception and decisions.

Nudge

Subtle prompts to encourage specific behaviors.

Gambler's Fallacy

Belief that past events affect future probabilities.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing investment due to prior losses.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see alternative uses for objects.