The Earth Examples

A divergent plate boundary where the North American plate is pulled away from the Eurasian and African plates, this forms a depressurised route for the mantle to rise into (Oppenheimer, 2011)

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Zone on the core-mantle boundary with a heat signature over 200 degrees hotter than its surroundings (Oppenheimer, 2011)

Cape Verde hotspot

The subduction of the Juan de Luca plate introduces water into the mantle wedge allowing for flux melting to occur (Oppenheimer, 2011)

Mount St Helens

Caused the largest perturbation of the century causing widespread cooling with an average of 0.5 degrees in the year following the eruption; it erupted in June, near the equator and the aerosols micro-characteristics made them particularly reflective (McCormick et al., 1995)

Mount Pinatubo 1991

The eruption occurred outside of the tropics (in Indonesia) and had widespread influence including the ‘Year Without a Summer’ in 1816 due to cooling of up to 0.7 degrees in that year (Oppenheimer, 2011)

Mount Tambora 1815

Both eruptions were of similar size but only released over 7x more sulphur than the other (Oppenheimer, 2011)

Mount St Helens 1980 and El Chichon 1982

Alaskan eruptions that did not have significant forcing effects due to their high latitudes (Oppenheimer, 2011)

Okmok and Kasatochi 2008

Acid rain and global ozone collapse resulting from the episodic volcanism and heating are possible causes for the end-Permian extinction event (Black et al., 2014)

Siberian Traps

A particularly strong association between LIP activity and extinction event (Ernst & Youbi, 2017)

Deccan Traps and end-Cretaceous

Maori tribes see the volcano as touching the Heavens and a place of the Gods, the volcano provides the village with Life Force and Crater Lake provides sustenance to the land; the union between Father Sky and Mother Earth guards all domains of life (Pardo et al., 2015)

Mount Ruapheu, New Zealand

The villagers are able to identify precursor events based on their past experiences and knowledges; the summit of the volcano is seen as a sacred site where visits are forbidden as a form of hazard management as well as the population living away from floor risks (Cronin et al., 2004)

Ambae Island, Vanuatu

Volcano has influenced settlement patterns, the most famous being the relocation from Cagsawa to Daraga, it also influences place names such as Uson meaning a place of pyroclastic flows and formed dialects in island communities; the volcano influences myths, rituals and ceremonies such as the Perdon (Bankoff et al., 2021)

Mount Mayon, Philippines

VEI of Mount Tambora 1815 eruption (Oppenheimer, 2011)

7

Height of plume from Mount Tambora 1815 eruption (Oppenheimer, 2011)

43 km

Sulphur injection volume from Mount Tambora 1815 eruption (Oppenheimer, 2011)

60 Mt

VEI of Mount Pinatubo 1991 eruption (McCormick et al., 1995)

6

Height of plume from Mount Pinatubo 1991 eruption (McCormick et al., 1995)

40 km

Sulphur injection volume from Mount Pinatubo eruption (McCormick et al., 1995)

20 Mt