AP Biology - 2024 Cheat Sheet (Fiveable)

this def didnt make me cry

Water has

hydrogen bonds

cohesion

water molecules stick together

adhesion

water molecules stick to other surfaces

surface tension

example is bugs walking on water

hydrolysis

A chemical process that splits a molecule by adding water.

dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules are bonded together with the removal of a water molecule.

DNA and RNA

made of nucleic acids and contain genetic information

nucleotides

Basic units of DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of 4 DNA bases/nitrogen base

Proteins

made of amino acids

the order of the polypeptides

defines the proteins structure and function

Carbohydrates

made of sugar monomers and store energy

lipids

vary in saturation, found in cell membrane, fats/oils ALSO STERIOIDS

Ribosomes

Makes proteins

ER

detoxes, makes lipids,

Golgi complex

folds and packages proteins

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production

lysosomes

expels waste

inner membrane folds

increases surface area so more ATP is made and more waste is expelled

phospholipid bilayers

picky; nutrients pass on their own and some need channel proteins to chaperone

examples of small nonpolar nutrients that easily pass through Phospholipid Bilayers

N2, O2, CO2

large polar nutrients/molecules

don't pass through the Phospholipid bilayer easily (need help)

Passive Transport

high concentration to low concentration. does not need ATP

faciliated diffusion

uses proteins to move larger proteins such as H2O NA+ K+, ect

Active Transport

low to high concentration NEEDS ATP (bike uphill)

Endosymbiosis theory

The theory that the eukaryotic cell evolved via the engulfing of one prokaryotic cell by another.

Cell Transport

The process of moving material in and out of cells.

Osmoregulation

the control of solute concentrations and water balance

enzymes

lower activation energy

lower activation energy helps

catalyze reactions

enzymes meet substrate at

active site

substrate

The reactant on which an enzyme works.

active site

The part of an enzyme or antibody where the chemical reaction occurs.

enzymes need certain

environmental factors such as pH, temp, concentration

if enzymes don't have certain conditions they will

denature

competitive inhibitors

bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate BAD

noncompetitive inhibitors

bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective BAD

Step one of photosynthesis

chlorophylls charge electrons in photosystems I and II with light energy

step two of photosynthesis

Calvin Cycle powers carbohydrate production at stroma using electrons

cell respiration needs

O2

cell respiration

makes ATP

step 1 of cellular respiration

transfer of electrons

step 2 of cellular respiration

proton gradient

step 3 of cellular respiration

ATP is produced

organisms always need what to function

energy

Photosynthisis equation

6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2

cellular respiration equation

C6H12O6+6O2---> 6CO2+6H2O+ATP

cell signaling

The process of cell-to-cell communication mediated by signaling molecules and membrane receptors

paracrine

signals diffuse to and affect nearby cells

endocrine signaling

A type of long-distance signaling in animals that utilizes hormones.

autocrine signaling

cells respond to signaling substances that they themselves secrete

signal transduction

reception, transduction, response

reception (signal transduction)

ligand (molecule) binds to the cell membrane receptor (e.g. ion-gated channel, G-protein coupled receptor)

ion-gated channel

Channels opened or closed by positive or negative charges.

G-protein coupled receptor

A plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of a G-protein.

Transduction

signal amplifies with help of messengers

response

gene transcription activates/some other way

Negative feedback

reduces stimulus (insulin & glucose)

Positive Feedback

increases response (oxytocin & birth)

cell cycle

series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide

stages of interphase

G1, S, G2

interphase

period of the cell cycle between cell divisions

_ is before a cell enters mitosis

interphase

mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

identical daughter cells come from

mitosis

meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms

Diploid (2n)

two copies of each chromosome

haploid (n)

having a single set of unpaired chromosomes

in meiosis it goes from _

diploid to haploid

meiosis I

Homologous chromosomes separate and crossover

meiosis II

sister chromatids separate

meiosis I demo

XX -> X and X

meiosis II demo

X -> / and \

crossing over

the exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes, resulting in a mixture of parental characteristics in offspring.

independent assortment

the random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes

mono/dihybrid crosses

handy tool to predict inheritance patterns for autosomal/sex-linked genes

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

phenotype

physical characteristics of an organism

pedigrees

a chart that shows a trait in a family and how it is inherited

the phenotype can be effected by

the environment

human genetic disorders are caused by

mutated alleles, chromosome changes, nondisjunction

Nondisjunction

Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.

DNA replicates

5' to 3' style, semi-conservative way

semi-conservative

relating to or denoting replication of a nucleic acid in which one complete strand of each double helix is directly derived from the parent molecule.

enzymes

Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things

Helicase

unwinds DNA

Topoisomerase

prevents coiling

DNA polymerase

builds DNA molecule

ligase

combines fragments in lagging strand

Tanscription

DNA copied into RNA; processing involves (1) GTP cap and poly-A tail addition + (2) intron splicing

Translation

ribosome reads mRNA ⇒ protein

gene expression is regulated by (eukaryotic)

transcription factors

gene expression is regulated by (prokaryotic)

operons

DNA Mutations

protein loses/gains function (or unaffected)

Gel electrophoresis

separates DNA fragments by size

PCR

amplifies DNA segments

Bacterial transformation

introduces DNA to bacterial cells.

Reproductive success

evolutionary fitness

Competition + selective pressure create

natural selection

_ and _ drive evolution

mutations and genetic drift

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

condition that occurs when the frequency of alleles in a particular gene pool remain constant over time