Psychology: Biopsychology and Human Genetics

Vocabulary flashcards based on the Biopsychology and Human Genetics lecture, covering genetic principles, neuron function, nervous system anatomy, and brain imaging techniques.

Biopsychology

The study of the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior, including genetics, the nervous system, and the endocrine system.

Theory of Evolution

A theory proposed by Charles Darwin in $1859$ asserting that organisms better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those poorly suited will die off.

Sickle Cell Anemia

A genetic condition where red blood cells take on a crescent-like shape; carriers of one copy of the gene are thought to be immune from malaria.

Genetic Variation

The genetic difference between individuals that contributes to a species' adaptation to its environment.

Chromosome

A long strand of genetic information known as DNA; humans receive $23$ from each parent for a total of $46$.

Deoxyribonucleic acid ($DNA$)

A helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs that contains genetic information.

Gene

A sequence of $DNA$ that controls or partially controls physical characteristics known as traits.

Allele

A specific version of a gene; a gene may have multiple possible variations.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual based on the genetic material ($DNA$) inherited from one's parents.

Phenotype

An individual's observable characteristics, such as hair color, skin color, height, and build.

Polygenic Traits

Inheritable traits that are controlled by more than just one gene.

Dominant Allele

An allele whose phenotype will always be expressed if at least one copy is present ($AA$ or $Aa$).

Recessive Allele

An allele whose phenotype will only be physically expressed if the individual is homozygous for that allele ($aa$).

Homozygous

A genetic condition where an individual consists of two identical alleles ($AA$ or $aa$).

Heterozygous

A genetic condition where an individual consists of two different alleles ($Aa$).

Punnett Square

A tool used to predict how genes will interact in the production of offspring.

Mutation

A sudden, permanent change in a gene; while many are harmful, some can be beneficial.

Range of Reaction

The assertion that genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and the environment determines where in that range we fall.

Genetic Environmental Correlation

The view that our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes.

Epigenetics

The study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes.

Neuron

A specialized cell that acts as a building block of the nervous system, characterized by a semi-permeable membrane.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures of a neuron that receive incoming electrical signals from other neurons.

Axon

A major extension of the neuron down which electrical signals travel.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty substance that insulates axons, allowing the electrical signal to travel quicker.

Terminal Buttons

Structures at the end of axons that contain synaptic vesicles.

Synaptic Vesicles

Storage sites for chemical messengers called neurotransmitters; each contains about $10,000$ molecules.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger of the nervous system used to transmit signals across the synapse.

Synapse

The very small space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron.

Resting Potential

The state of readiness of a neuron membrane's potential between signals, typically at $-70\,mV$.

Threshold of Excitation

The level of charge in the membrane ($-55\,mV$) that causes the neuron to become active and start an action potential.

Action Potential

An electrical signal that moves down the neuron's axon on an all-or-none principle.

Reuptake

The process of moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon terminal from which it was released.

Biological Perspective

The view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in neurotransmitter systems.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle action and memory.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with mood, sleep, learning, reward, and addiction.

Psychotropic Medication

Drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance.

Agonist

A drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter.

Central Nervous System ($CNS$)

The part of the nervous system comprised of the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System ($PNS$)

The collection of nerves that connect the $CNS$ to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

A subdivision of the $PNS$ that relays sensory and motor information to and from the $CNS$.

Autonomic Nervous System

A subdivision of the $PNS$ that controls internal organs and glands.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system involved in stress-related activities and the fight or flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system associated with routine, day-to-day operations and the rest and restore response.

Homeostasis

A state of equilibrium in the body maintained by the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Lateralization

The concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of neural fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Cerebral Cortex

The surface of the brain associated with highest mental capabilities like consciousness, thought, and reasoning.

Frontal Lobe

The lobe involved in executive functioning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains the motor cortex and prefrontal cortex.

Broca's Area

A region in the left hemisphere's frontal lobe essential for language production.

Parietal Lobe

The lobe involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information from across the body.

Somatosensory Cortex

A strip of cortex in the parietal lobe essential for processing touch, temperature, and pain.

Temporal Lobe

The lobe associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and language; contains the auditory cortex and Wernicke's area.

Wernicke's Area

A region in the temporal lobe important for speech comprehension.

Occipital Lobe

The lobe associated with visual processing; organized retinotopically.

Thalamus

The relay center of the brain where most senses (except smell) are routed for processing.

Limbic System

A circuit involved in mediating emotional response and memory, containing the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in the experience of emotion, fear, and tying emotional meaning to memories.

Hippocampus

A limbic system structure associated with learning and memory, especially spatial memory.

Reticular Formation

A midbrain structure important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity.

Medulla

A hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.

Pons

A hindbrain structure that connects the brain and spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep.

Cerebellum

A hindbrain structure that controls balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills.

Computerized Tomography ($CT$) Scan

A brain imaging technique involving x-rays used to show varied densities, such as brain tumors.

Positron Emission Tomography ($PET$) Scan

An imaging technique involving a mildly radioactive tracer to monitor change in blood flow and brain activity.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging ($fMRI$)

A type of $MRI$ that shows changes in metabolic activity (blood flow and oxygen levels) over time.

Electroencephalography ($EEG$)

A technique that records the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp to track brainwaves.

Pituitary Gland

The master gland of the endocrine system that controls the secretions of all other glands.

Adrenal Gland

A gland that secretes hormones involved in the stress response.