Comprehensive Vocabulary – Social Psychology, Personality, & Psychopathology

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the lecture on social psychology, personality, psychological disorders, and treatments.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how the real or imagined presence of others influences people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Attribution

An explanation for the cause of someone’s behavior or an event.

Personal (Dispositional) Attribution

Explaining behavior by referring to internal traits, moods, motives, or effort.

Situational Attribution

Explaining behavior in terms of external circumstances such as luck, context, or environment.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when judging others’ behavior.

Actor–Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute our own actions to situations but others’ actions to their dispositions.

Stereotype

A mental shortcut or schema about a group that can guide perception and behavior.

Subtyping

Creating a special category for people who do not fit a stereotype rather than altering the stereotype itself.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (Pygmalion Effect)

Expectations about a person lead us to treat them in ways that bring those expectations to reality.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward individuals based solely on their membership in a group.

Discrimination

Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a group member because of group membership.

Social Identity Theory

The idea that part of a person’s self-concept is derived from group memberships.

In-Group Favoritism

The tendency to evaluate members of one’s own group more positively than members of an out-group.

Out-Group Homogeneity Effect

Perceiving members of an out-group as more similar to each other than members of the in-group.

Superordinate Goal

A shared objective that requires cooperation between groups, reducing intergroup bias.

Attitude

A learned evaluation—positive, negative, or mixed—of an object, person, or idea.

Mere Exposure Effect

Greater liking of a stimulus due to repeated exposure.

Conditioning (in Attitude Formation)

Pairing a product or idea with a positive stimulus (e.g., celebrities) to create favorable attitudes.

Socialization (Attitudes)

Acquiring attitudes by observing and interacting with others in one’s culture.

Explicit Attitude

A consciously held and reportable evaluation.

Implicit Attitude

An unconscious evaluation that influences feelings and behavior.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A reaction-time measure assessing the strength of automatic associations between concepts.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological discomfort caused by inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors.

Insufficient Justification Effect

Changing an attitude to justify behavior when external incentives are minimal (Festinger & Carlsmith).

Postdecisional Dissonance

Tension after choosing between attractive options, leading to enhanced feelings about the chosen alternative.

Persuasion

The process of changing attitudes through communication.

Source (Persuasion)

The communicator’s credibility and attractiveness, which affect persuasive power.

Content (Persuasion)

The quality, logic, and emotional appeal of a persuasive message.

Receiver (Persuasion)

Audience characteristics—such as motivation and ability—that influence persuasion.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Theory stating attitude change occurs via central or peripheral processing routes.

Central Route (ELM)

High elaboration path using logic and evidence; produces lasting attitude change.

Peripheral Route (ELM)

Low elaboration path relying on cues like attractiveness or emotion; change is often temporary.

Social Facilitation

Enhanced performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

Social Loafing

Reduced effort by individuals when their contributions are pooled and not individually identifiable.

Deindividuation

A state of reduced self-awareness and decreased self-restraint in group situations.

Group Polarization

Tendency for group discussion to strengthen the dominant positions held by individual members.

Groupthink

Faulty group decision-making that values consensus over critical analysis.

Risky Shift Effect

Groups often make riskier decisions than individuals alone.

Conformity

Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to align with group norms.

Normative Influence

Conforming to be liked, accepted, or avoid rejection.

Informational Influence

Conforming because others are perceived as a source of correct information.

Compliance

Agreeing to a request made by another person.

Social Norm

An expected standard or rule that guides social behavior.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Gaining compliance with a large request by first securing a smaller, related request.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Increasing compliance by first making a large request that is refused, then a smaller request.

Lowballing

Getting commitment to a deal and then revealing hidden costs or terms.

Obedience

Following direct commands from an authority figure (e.g., Milgram’s study).

Aggression

Any behavior intended to harm another person physically or emotionally.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Blocked goals lead to frustration, which can trigger aggression.

Serotonin (Aggression)

Lower serotonin levels are linked to higher aggression and poor impulse control.

Culture of Honor

A societal norm endorsing aggressive responses to threats to reputation.

Prosocial Behavior

Actions intended to benefit others.

Altruism

Helping others with no expectation of personal reward.

Reciprocal Helping

Assisting others with the expectation they will later return the favor.

Kin Selection

Helping genetic relatives to enhance inclusive fitness and gene survival.

Bystander Intervention Effect

Reduced likelihood of helping in the presence of others.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Belief that others will or should take action, lowering individual responsibility to help.

Fear of Social Blunders

Reluctance to help for fear of making a mistake or looking foolish.

Anonymity (Helping)

Feeling unidentified in a crowd, which can decrease the likelihood of helping.

Cost-Benefit Analysis (Helping)

Weighing personal risks and rewards before deciding to help.

Homophily

Attraction to people who are similar to oneself.

Proximity

Physical closeness that increases the chance of repeated contact and liking.

Physical Attractiveness

Perceived beauty; symmetry and average features are often preferred.

Passionate Love

Intense longing and arousal typically present in early romantic relationships.

Companionate Love

Deep affection, intimacy, and commitment that develop over time.

Gottman’s Four Horsemen

Criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling—behaviors predicting relationship breakup.

Accommodation (Relationships)

Constructively responding to a partner’s negative behavior to maintain the relationship.

Sense of Self

An individual’s knowledge of personal characteristics and identity.

Self-Esteem

One’s overall evaluation of personal worth.

Self-Schema

Cognitive structures that organize information about the self.

Working Self-Concept

The aspect of the self that is currently activated and salient.

Reflected Appraisal

Basing self-esteem on how we believe others perceive us.

Sociometer

Internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection that influences self-esteem.

Narcissism

Inflated self-esteem, grandiosity, and a strong need for admiration.

Downward Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone worse off to boost self-esteem.

Upward Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone better off, potentially lowering self-esteem or motivating improvement.

Temporal Comparison

Evaluating the present self against past self to maintain a positive view.

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Individualist Culture

Society emphasizing personal autonomy and individual achievements.

Collectivist Culture

Society prioritizing group harmony and interdependence.

Psychodynamic Theory

Freud’s view that behavior is driven by unconscious conflicts among id, ego, and superego.

Id

Primitive, unconscious component seeking pleasure and immediate gratification.

Superego

Moral conscience incorporating parental and societal standards.

Ego

Rational component mediating between id impulses and superego demands.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce anxiety (e.g., repression, projection).

Object Relations Theory

Neo-Freudian view emphasizing internalized early relationships in personality development.

Self-Actualization

Maslow’s concept of realizing one’s full potential for growth.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance and support of a person regardless of what they say or do (Rogers).

Conditions of Worth

Expectations that limit self-concept when acceptance depends on meeting certain standards.

Expectancy Theory (Rotter)

Behavior is guided by expectations of reinforcement and the value placed on those reinforcers.

Locus of Control

Belief about whether outcomes are under personal control (internal) or outside forces (external).

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura’s idea that personal factors, behavior, and environment mutually influence each other.

Observational Learning

Acquiring new behaviors or attitudes by watching others.

Trait

A stable, enduring disposition to behave consistently across situations.

Extraversion–Introversion (Eysenck)

Trait dimension describing sociability and outgoingness versus reserve.

Neuroticism (Eysenck)

Trait dimension describing emotional instability versus calmness.

Psychoticism/Constraint

Trait dimension related to aggressiveness and impulse control.

Five-Factor Model (Big Five)

Broad trait framework: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Openness to Experience

Imaginative, curious, and open-minded trait.

Conscientiousness

Organized, dependable, and goal-directed trait.