AP Psych T2 Assessment

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (pp. 10, 272)

Humanistic Psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential. (p. 11)

Cognitive psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems. (p. 13)

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. (pp. 14, 141)

Psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. (p. 18)

Social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. (p. 18)

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (p. 44)

Naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation. (p. 45)

Survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (p. 47)

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. (p. 51)

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. (p. 54)

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (p. 54)

Control Group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (p. 54)

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. (p. 54)

Independent Variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (p. 55)

Dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated. (p. 56)

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results. (p. 56)

Informed Consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. (p. 62)

Learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. (p. 270)

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food). (p. 272)

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. (p. 273)

Unconditioned Response (UCR/UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth). (p. 274)

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS/US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response UR). (p. 274)

Conditioned Response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). (p. 274)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR). (p. 274)

Acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. (p. 275)

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (p. 276)

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. (p. 276)

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.) (p. 276)

Discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.) (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. (pp. 277, 792)

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher. (p. 283)

Positive Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. (p. 285)

Negative Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. (p. 285)

Positive Punishment

a behavior modification technique that involves adding an adverse consequence after an unwanted behavior. (p. 289)

Negative Punishment

a behavioral technique that involves removing something desirable after an undesirable behavior occurs. (p. 289)

Encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system— for example, by extracting meaning. (p. 329)

Storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time. (p. 329)

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage. (p. 329)

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. (p. 329)

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. (p. 329)

Explicit Memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.) (p. 330)

Implicit Memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) (p. 331)

Deep Processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention. (Also called semantic encoding.) (p. 335)

Shallow Processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words. (p. 335)

Flashbulb Memory

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (p. 342)

Retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past. (p. 351)

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories. (p. 351)

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. (p. 365)

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a _______ provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a bird, such as a robin). (p. 365)

Divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions. (p. 366)

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. (p. 366)

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics. (p. 370)

Heuristics

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more errorprone than an algorithm. (p. 370)

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. (p. 371)

Fixation

(1) in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving. (pp. 371, 621)

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments. (p. 376)

Telegraphic Speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs. (p. 384)

General Intelligence (g)

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. (p. 402)

Howard Gardner

psychologist; devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic (p. 403)

Achievement Test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned. (p. 408)

Aptitude Test

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. (p. 408)

Savant Syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing. (p. 403)

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting. (p. 412)

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (pp. 56, 412)

Growth Mindset

the belief that one's abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort, learning, and perseverance. It is the understanding that failure and challenges are opportunities for growth rather than fixed limitations. (p. 426)

Carol Dweck

psychologist; reports that believing in intelligence is biologically set and unchanging can lead to a "fixed mindset.' Believing in intelligence is changeable, "a growth mindset” results in a focus on learning and growing. (p. 426)

Stereotype Threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. (p. 433)

Teratogens

(literally, “monster makers”) agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. (p. 446)

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. (p. 454)

Accommodation

in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. (pp. 454)

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. (p. 455)

Preoperational Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. (p. 456)

Concrete Operational Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. (p. 458)

Formal Operational Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. (p. 458)

Egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view. (p. 457)

Authoritarian

parents who impose strict rules, expect absolute obedience from their children, and often use punishment to enforce discipline. (p. 472)

Authoritative

a parenting approach that is characterized by high levels of warmth, responsiveness, and support combined with reasonable expectations for behavior. Parents who adopt this style are both nurturing and firm, providing structure while also allowing their children to have independence and autonomy. (p. 472)

Permissive

parents who provide few guidelines or rules and give children much freedom. They tend not to enforce discipline regularly and often behave more like friends than parental figures.(p. 472)

Negligent

Also known as uninvolved or dismissive parenting, this is a harmful style of parenting that involves a lack of responsiveness to a child's needs. These parents ignore their children, do not respond to their needs, and generally neglect their role as parents. (p. 472)

Basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers. (p. 469)

Insecure Attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness. (p. 467)

Secure Attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return. (p. 467)

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. (p. 534)

Incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. (p. 535)

Incentive Theory

suggests that behavior is driven by the potential rewards or punishments associated with it. It posits that individuals are motivated to engage in certain actions based on the anticipated outcomes they expect to receive. (p. 535)

Instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. (p. 534)

Drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. (p. 535)

Homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. (p. 535)

hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. (pp. 537, 631)

Affiliation Need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group. (p. 555)

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus: stimulus → arousal → emotion. (p. 565)

Two-factor Theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal. (p. 566)

Facial Feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness. (p. 579)

Behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions. (p. 580)

Motivational Conflict Theory

theory, proposed by psychologist Kurt Lewin, suggests that individuals are motivated to resolve conflicts that can be categorized into three types: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance. (p. 585)