Psych 3rd year

What is epigenetics?

Changes in gene expression without changing DNA sequence (e.g., methylation, histone modification).

What is DNA methylation?

A chemical tag added to DNA that usually reduces gene expression.

Why is early life a sensitive window for epigenetics?

Epigenetic systems are most flexible in foetal life and childhood, so experiences become biologically embedded.

Why is correlation ≠ causation a problem in epigenetics?

We can’t tell if epigenetic changes cause a disorder or if the disorder

What is Gene × Environment interaction (G×E)?

When the effect of genes depends on the environment or the environment depends on genetics.

What does behavioural genetics study?

How genes and environment contribute to differences in behaviour.

What method separates genetic from environmental influence?

Twin studies (comparing monozygotic vs. dizygotic twins).

What does heritability mean?

The proportion of variation in a trait explained by genetic differences in a population.

What design helps test causal direction in epigenetics?

Longitudinal designs that follow the same individuals over time.

What is Mendelian Randomisation?

A causal method using genetic variants as natural experiments.

In the psilocybin vs escitalopram study, what was compared?

Psilocybin-assisted therapy vs escitalopram + CBT on HAM-D and HAM-A scores.

What was the key finding of the psilocybin study?

Psilocybin showed greater improvement in depression and anxiety scores.

Why might psilocybin be more effective?

It produces rapid neuroplasticity and deeper emotional

What is a major limitation of psilocybin research?

Small samples, expectancy effects, and limited long-term data.

What does AHPRA require regarding practitioner scope?

Practitioners must work within their scope and avoid role confusion.

What does the NHMRC say about deception?

It must be justified, minimal, and followed by prompt debriefing.

What ethical issue occurs when students feel pressured to participate for credit?

Power imbalance affecting voluntary consent.

How do you reduce power imbalance in research recruitment?

Provide a genuinely equivalent alternative assignment with no disadvantage.

What is Behavioural Activation?

A CBT technique that increases enjoyable or meaningful activities to reduce depression.

What is the purpose of therapy homework?

To practise skills outside sessions and strengthen therapeutic learning.

What is a phenotype?

The observable traits or behaviours resulting from genes + environment.

What is a genotype?

A person’s genetic makeup.

What is gene expression?

The process where genes are “turned on” to make proteins.

What are histone modifications?

Chemical changes to histone proteins that affect how tightly DNA is packed.

What does it mean when chromatin is “open”?

Genes in that region are more likely to be expressed.

What does it mean when chromatin is “closed”?

Gene expression is reduced because DNA is tightly packed.

Why are twin studies important?

They help estimate genetic vs environmental contributions to traits.

What is the equal environments assumption?

That MZ and DZ twins experience equally similar environments—important for twin study validity.

What is shared environment?

Environmental influences that make siblings similar (e.g., family SES, parenting style).

What is non-shared environment?

Influences that make siblings different (e.g., different friends, teachers, experiences).

What is the main goal of CBT?

To change unhelpful thoughts and behaviours.

What is cognitive restructuring?

A CBT technique used to challenge and reframe negative thinking.

What is avoidance behaviour in depression?

Withdrawing from activities, which reinforces low mood.

How does Behavioural Activation treat depression?

By encouraging activities that increase reward, pleasure, or mastery.

What is rumination?

Repetitive negative thinking that worsens depression.

What is an RCT (Randomised Controlled Trial)?

A study where participants are randomly assigned to different conditions to test causality.

What is selection bias?

When participants differ systematically from non-participants, affecting validity.

What is measurement bias?

When the method of measurement systematically favours certain outcomes.

What is informed consent?

Participants must fully understand the study and voluntarily agree to participate.

What is debriefing?

Explaining the true purpose and any deception used after participation.

What are the five bases for knowing or believing something?

1. Intuition or personal experience 2. Testimonials 3. Expertise or authority 4. Logic 5. Scientific research

What is intuition as a basis for knowledge?

Knowledge based on personal experience and impressions.

What are testimonials as a basis for knowledge?

Information from friends, influencers, or user reviews.

What is expertise or authority as a basis for knowledge?

Believing claims because they come from experts, textbooks, journals, newspapers, or medical websites.

What is logic as a basis for knowledge?

Using reasoning and analytical thinking to reach conclusions.

What is scientific research?

Systematic observations and formal testing of propositions.

Which basis of knowledge is the main foundation of psychology?

Scientific research.

Why does psychology rely on scientific research?

To increase knowledge by testing and justifying claims while discarding false ideas.

What is the purpose of research?

To increase knowledge.

How does research protect psychology?

By identifying incorrect theories and ineffective therapies.

What philosophical approach underpins psychological research?

Empiricism.

What is empiricism?

The philosophy that knowledge comes from observations and data.

According to empiricism, where does knowledge come from?

Observations and evidence.

What is the main assumption of science?

Knowledge is gained through evidence and observations.

What does objective testing mean?

Testing propositions without personal bias.

Why is self-correction important in science?

Knowledge develops and changes when evidence does not support existing ideas.

Why are appropriate research design and measurement important?

They ensure research produces valid and reliable evidence.

What does testability mean in science?

A proposition must be capable of being tested.

Why must constructs be measurable?

Because they need to be observed and tested scientifically.

What does falsifiable mean?

A theory must be capable of being shown to be false by evidence.

Why is falsifiability important?

Without it, incorrect theories cannot be disproven.

What is transparency in scientific research?

Providing enough information for others to evaluate and replicate research.

What types of questions does scientific research investigate?

Empirical questions.

What are empirical questions?

Questions about facts that are best answered through observations and data collection.

Give an example of an empirical question.

Does stress cause road rage?

Give another example of an empirical question.

How does using social media affect self-esteem in adolescents?

Can research answer moral questions?

No, moral questions are not empirical.

Give an example of a non-empirical question.

Is euthanasia wrong?

Give another example of a non-empirical question.

Do all humans deserve equal rights regardless of race, culture, religion, gender identity, and sexual orientation?

Why do published research papers include detailed methods and statistics?

To ensure transparency.

Why is transparency important in research?

It allows others to evaluate the quality of the study.

What can researchers evaluate because of transparency?

The study's quality.

What can readers judge because of transparency?

The importance and meaning of the results.

What else does transparency allow?

It allows others to determine whether the researchers' conclusions are justified.

Does publication in a peer-reviewed journal guarantee a study is good?

No.

What factors determine the truthfulness of research findings?

Quality of the design, quality of the measures, appropriateness of the statistical analyses, size and nature of the effects, and the match between results and conclusions.

Why is research design important?

It affects the validity of the findings.

Why are high-quality measures important?

They improve the accuracy of the results.

Why are appropriate statistical analyses important?

They ensure the conclusions drawn are supported by the data.

Why does the size of the effect matter?

It helps determine how meaningful the findings are.

Why should conclusions match the results?

To avoid making unsupported claims.

Are most research studies perfect?

No, almost no studies are perfect.

Why are collections of studies valuable?

Together, well-designed studies provide the best current answer to a research question.

What is the ultimate goal of psychological research?

To provide the best available answers, help people realise their potential, and solve human problems.

Why do psychologists need to understand empirical principles?

So they can critically interpret research findings for themselves.

What is causality?

Determining whether one variable causes changes in another variable.

Why is causality important in psychology?

Psychology aims to understand why behaviours, thoughts, and emotions occur and whether interventions cause change.

Which research design provides the strongest evidence for cause and effect?

Experiments.

Can correlational studies prove causation?

No, they can only suggest relationships consistent with causation.

Why can't correlation demonstrate causation?

Because the direction of the relationship is unclear and third variables may explain it.

What are the three possible explanations for a correlation?

A causes B, B causes A, or a third variable (C) causes both A and B.

What is an example of a third-variable explanation?

People experiencing difficult life events may feel more depressed and also perceive their friends as less supportive.

What are the three essential conditions for establishing cause and effect?

Covariation, temporal order, and ruling out alternative explanations.

What is covariation?

The proposed cause and effect must be related.

What is temporal order?

The cause must occur before the effect.

Why must alternative explanations be ruled out?

To ensure the independent variable caused the observed effect.