Foundations of Psychological Science Chapter 1 &2 Exam Practice

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Behavior vs. mental process

Behavior is observable action; a mental process is an internal activity such as thinking, feeling, perceiving, or remembering.

Nature or nurture?

Asks how biological inheritance and environmental experience each shape behavior.

Change or stability?

Asks which characteristics change across life and which remain consistent.

Universal or unique?

Asks what people share and how individuals or cultures differ.

Philosophy contribution to psychology

Raised questions about human experience through reasoning, insight, and opinion.

Physiology/natural science contribution to psychology

Supported the idea that mental activity is a bodily function that can be observed and studied scientifically.

Structuralism

Early movement that broke mental processes into basic parts; used introspection; associated with Wundt and Titchener.

Functionalism

Early movement that asked what mental processes and behaviors are for; associated with William James, adaptation, evolution, and stream of consciousness.

Gestalt psychology

Approach arguing that the whole experience differs from the sum of its separate elements; associated with Max Wertheimer.

Psychoanalysis

Perspective emphasizing unconscious activity and the lasting influence of childhood; associated with Sigmund Freud.

Behaviorism

Perspective emphasizing observable behavior and environmental learning; associated with John Watson and B. F. Skinner.

Humanism

Perspective emphasizing generally good human nature, free choice, growth, and self-actualization; associated with Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Biological perspective

Studies how genes, brain systems, hormones, anatomy, physiology, and evolution relate to behavior.

Neuroscience

Emphasizes links between behavior and the biological functioning of the brain.

Evolutionary psychology

Studies how physical traits and behavior may have been shaped by survival and reproduction pressures.

Cognitive perspective

Studies information processing, including thinking, memory, perception, attention, and intelligence.

Developmental perspective

Studies normal changes in behavior and mental processes across the life span.

Social and personality perspective

Studies social/cultural context and individual differences in thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

Multiculturalism

Emphasizes the influence of culture and diverse identities on behavior and mental processes.

Clinical / mental and physical health perspective

Explains, defines, and treats psychological disorders and studies well-being and health.

Integrated / biopsychosocial approach

Combines biological, psychological, and social/cultural explanations for a fuller account of behavior.

Pseudopsychology

Psychological information that appears scientific but lacks scientific support.

Confirmation bias

Notice and seek evidence that supports an existing belief while ignoring contradictions.

Belief perseverance

Continue holding a belief even after evidence suggests it is wrong.

Bandwagon fallacy

Accept a claim because many other people believe it.

Emotional reasoning

Treat a feeling as proof instead of using logic and evidence.

Authority fallacy

Accept a claim only because an authority figure supports it.

Antiquity fallacy

Accept a belief because people have held it for a long time.

Black-or-white fallacy

Use an extreme either/or explanation when a more moderate or multi-cause explanation is more accurate.

Basic research

Research conducted mainly to increase understanding of behavior and mental processes.

Applied psychology

Uses psychological knowledge to solve real-world problems.

Psychology as a hub science

Psychology connects findings across biological, social, health, education, law, business, and policy fields.

Science

Learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation.

Objectivity

Basing conclusions on facts while limiting personal emotion and bias.

Critical thinking

Thinking clearly and independently by evaluating evidence, alternatives, and reasonable conclusions.

Scientific theory

An organized, observation-based explanation that links facts and supports testable predictions.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable proposed explanation or prediction linking variables.

Peer review

Experts in the same field examine a study to improve it and identify problems.

Replication

Repeating a study independently and obtaining similar results.

Operational definition

A precise rule for how a variable is measured or identified in a specific study.

Reliability

Consistency: a measure gives similar results across repeated uses, items, or observers.

Validity

Accuracy: a measure actually captures the construct it claims to measure.

Population

The entire group a researcher wants to understand.

Sample

The subset of a population that is actually studied.

Representative sample

A sample whose important characteristics reflect the target population.

Random sampling

Every population member has an equal chance of being selected; improves representativeness and generalizability.

Stratified sampling

Divide a population into important subgroups and randomly sample each subgroup proportionally.

Volunteer bias

People who choose to participate differ systematically from those who do not.

Generalizability

How well findings apply beyond the studied sample to the target population or other contexts.

WEIRD samples

Samples drawn heavily from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic populations.

Random assignment

Each participant has an equal chance of entering each experimental condition; helps make groups comparable.

Case study

An in-depth descriptive investigation of one person, small group, or event.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in its natural setting without manipulating or interfering.

Survey

Asking many people questions about attitudes, opinions, experiences, or behavior.

Correlation

A measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

Positive correlation

The variables increase or decrease together; positive does not mean good.

Negative correlation

One variable increases as the other decreases; negative does not mean bad.

Zero correlation

The variables are not predictably related.

Correlation coefficient

A number from -1.00 to +1.00; sign shows direction and absolute value shows strength.

Course correlation strength ranges

0-.19 very weak; .20-.39 weak; .40-.59 moderate; .60-.79 strong; .80-1.00 very strong.

Directionality problem

A correlation does not show whether A caused B or B caused A.

Third-variable problem

An unmeasured variable C may cause both correlated variables A and B.

Spurious correlation

A relationship exists in the data, but another factor provides the real explanation.

Illusory correlation

A person perceives a relationship that the evidence does not support.

Experiment

A method that manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable to test causation.

Independent variable (IV)

The variable the researcher manipulates; the proposed cause.

Dependent variable (DV)

The measured outcome; the proposed effect.

Experimental group

The group exposed to the treatment or condition being tested.

Control group

The comparison group that experiences similar procedures without the key manipulation.

Confounding variable

An uncontrolled factor besides the IV that could influence the DV.

Mean

The arithmetic average; sensitive to extreme scores.

Median

The middle ordered score; less affected by extreme outliers.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score or category.

Descriptive statistics

Methods that summarize the data collected, such as means, percentages, tables, and graphs.

Inferential statistics

Methods that use sample data to evaluate patterns and draw cautious conclusions about a population.

Meta-analysis

A statistical analysis combining results from many studies to estimate an overall effect.

Publication bias

Positive or significant results are published more often than null or negative results.

Cross-sectional design

Measures different groups at the same time.

Longitudinal design

Measures the same people at multiple times.

Cross-sequential design

Follows multiple age or cohort groups over time.

Cohort effect

A group difference caused by different historical or life experiences rather than age itself.

Informed consent

Participants understand what participation involves before agreeing.

Right to withdraw

Participants may leave a study without unfair penalty.

Debriefing

Researchers explain the study's true purpose and any deception after participation.

Human research protections

Informed consent, voluntary participation, privacy, minimized harm, right to withdraw, debriefing, and independent ethical review.

Animal research protections

Use a clear scientific purpose, provide excellent care, and minimize pain and suffering.

[Scenario] A measure gives the same wrong answer every time.

Reliable but not valid: it is consistent but inaccurate.

[Scenario] A researcher quietly watches dining-hall seating behavior.

Naturalistic observation because behavior is observed in a real setting without manipulation.

[Scenario] A psychologist deeply studies one person with a rare disorder.

Case study because one unusual case is examined in depth.

[Scenario] A researcher asks 3,000 people about stress.

Survey because many people answer self-report questions.

[Scenario] r = -0.76 between sleep and fatigue.

Strong negative correlation: as sleep increases, fatigue tends to decrease.

[Scenario] Ice-cream sales and drownings rise together because of hot weather.

Spurious correlation; hot weather is the third factor explaining both.

[Scenario] A stereotype makes someone see a relationship unsupported by evidence.

Illusory correlation.

[Scenario] Stress and sleep are related, but the researcher cannot tell which causes which.

Directionality problem.

[Scenario] A study manipulates hours of sleep and measures reaction time.

Sleep hours are the IV; reaction time is the DV; this is an experiment.

[Scenario] Volunteers are placed into groups by a coin flip.

Random assignment because chance determines the experimental condition.

[Scenario] Names are selected by chance from the full student roster.

Random sampling because chance determines who enters the study.

[Scenario] A huge sample comes only from one university.

The sample may be large but not representative, so generalizability is limited.

[Scenario] A social-media poll mainly attracts people who care strongly about the topic.

Volunteer bias.