A History of Western Society: Chapter 1

Humans were foragers, moving through landscapes and inventing specialized tools.

What were humans primarily doing during most of their time on Earth?

They saw it as "prehistory," not as "history," which they believed began with writing.

How did historians traditionally view the foraging past?

They no longer see writing as a sharp dividing line and explore all eras using various sources.

How do modern historians view the division between prehistory and history?

DNA analysis and radiocarbon dating.

What new technologies have allowed historians to explore the past more deeply?

People domesticated plants and animals and began living in permanent villages.

What happened about 11,000 years ago in some human societies?

Writing was used to record taxes, inventories, and payments.

What were some early uses of writing?

In the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys of southwest Asia and the Nile Valley of northeast Africa.

Where were the first cities and systems of governance developed?

These ideas derived from the ancient Greeks.

What originally shaped ideas about "the West" and "the East"?

They saw these earlier civilizations as "Eastern" and more advanced.

How did the Greeks view themselves in relation to Egypt and Mesopotamia?

They introduced the terms "Europe" and "Asia."

What concept did the Greeks introduce to define geographic areas?

They saw it as sophisticated but also decadent and immoral.

How did the Romans view the East?

They saw themselves as inheritors of Greco-Roman traditions and thus part of the West.

How did Europeans see themselves in relation to Greco-Roman ideas?

Through European colonization, which spread Western culture beyond Europe.

How did Western civilization spread globally?

Educators were concerned that people were becoming cut off from European intellectual traditions.

Why were Western civilization courses introduced in the early 20th century?

Cultures historically considered Eastern, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia.

What did Western civilization courses include?

Western implied a capitalist economy, while Eastern referred to the Communist bloc.

How did the definition of "Western" change after World War II?

Western suggests values like individualism and competition.

What are some cultural connotations of "Western" in the 21st century?

They viewed themselves as more advanced and "civilized" compared to rural people.

What is civilization, according to ancient city residents?

As societies with large-scale political, economic, and social organizations, and often with writing systems.

How did 18th-century European scholars define civilizations?

It implies all societies develop the same way and that some are superior to others.

Why do some historians reject the idea of a uniform model of civilization development?

The concept of "Western civilization" and its core values and geographical extent.

What has been questioned along with the concept of "civilization"?

It has been influenced by interactions with other societies, cultures, and civilizations.

How has Western civilization been shaped throughout history?

It has shaped how many people view cultural values and differences for thousands of years.

What has been a lasting effect of the idea of a distinction between the West and the rest of the world?

Scientists like geologists and paleontologists divide time into periods based on the movements of continents and the evolution and extinction of species.

How do scientists classify time in earth's history?

They labeled eras based on the primary material used for tools: Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

How did European archaeologists label human history eras?

The Stone Age is divided into the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras.

What were the main divisions of the Stone Age?

People used stone tools and relied on foraging, gathering plants, trapping small animals, and hunting.

What characterized the Paleolithic era?

The Neolithic era marked the beginning of agriculture and the domestication of animals.

What significant change occurred in the Neolithic era?

What marks the transition between the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras?

The shift to agriculture and domestication of animals is used to mark the transition between these eras.

When did human ancestors begin to walk upright?

Between 7 and 6 million years ago.

What was the significance of walking upright for early hominids?

It allowed them to carry things.

When did hominids start using naturally occurring objects as tools?

About 3.4 million years ago.

What development is linked to the creation of simple tools by hominids around 2.5 million years ago?

It may have spurred brain development.

By what time had hominids migrated throughout much of Afro-Eurasia?

About 600,000 years ago.

When did Homo sapiens evolve in East Africa?

About 300,000 years ago.

What features characterized Homo sapiens compared to earlier hominids?

Larger and more complex brains, symbolic language, and better social skills.

What types of tools did Homo sapiens invent?

Highly specialized tools made from a variety of materials.

When did Homo sapiens first migrate out of Africa into Eurasia?

By 130,000 years ago, and possibly earlier.

How did Homo sapiens reach Australia and the Americas?

Using rafts to reach Australia about 50,000 years ago and possibly earlier to the Americas.

What happened to other types of hominids over time?

They became extinct, leaving Homo sapiens as the only survivors.

How did Paleolithic people generally live?

In small groups of related individuals, moving throughout the landscape in search of food.

What was the primary diet of Paleolithic people?

Mostly plants, with animal protein mostly coming from scavenging rather than hunting directly.

How did Paleolithic people hunt large game?

By working together, forcing animals over cliffs, using spears, and eventually using bows to shoot projectiles.

Was there wealth differentiation in Paleolithic societies?

No, Paleolithic people were not differentiated by wealth.

What types of cultural expressions were evident in the Paleolithic era?

Painting, decorating, music, storytelling, and dancing.

What led to the dynastic warfare in the Hittite Empire?

The assassination of Mursili I by members of his own family.

How did the Hittites manage to be powerful despite internal conflicts?

When they were united behind a strong king.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 B.C.E.?

Neither side gained much; both recognized the impossibility of defeating the other.

What was declared by Ramesses II after the Battle of Kadesh?

He declared that he had won and had monuments carved to commemorate his supposed victory.

What was the result of the peace treaty between Ramesses II and Hattusili III in 1258?

Each side promised not to invade the other, to aid each other if attacked, and swore peace and brotherhood.

How was the peace treaty between Ramesses II and Hattusili III recorded?

In both Egyptian hieroglyphics and Hittite cuneiform.

What was the oath included in the peace treaty?

The gods would curse the one who broke the treaty and bless the one who kept it.

Who was the king of the gods in Mesopotamian religion?

Enlil

What did the Sumerians and later Mesopotamians believe controlled the world?

Gods and goddesses representing cosmic forces like the sun, moon, water, and storms.

In Uruk, which goddess had a central temple dedicated to her?

Inanna, the goddess of love and sexuality, associated with the planet Venus.

What was the primary purpose of building grand temples in Mesopotamian religion?

To honor the gods and demonstrate the strength and power of the community and its chief deity.

Who typically performed rituals in Mesopotamian temples?

Priests and priestesses.

What did the Babylonians' creation myth involve?

The primeval sea goddess Tiamat, who gave birth to the gods and was defeated by Marduk, who then created the sky and earth.

What is the Epic of Gilgamesh?

The world's first epic poem recounting the achievements, labors, and failures of the hero Gilgamesh and addressing questions about life, death, and immortality.

What role did written texts play in Sumerian religious life?

They were not an important part of Sumerian religious life and were not central to the religious practices of most peoples in the region.

How can epic poems like the Epic of Gilgamesh be used by historians?

To learn about various aspects of a society and as historical sources.

How did kings emerge in Sumerian society?

Kings emerged from temporary authority held by chief priests or military leaders during emergencies, which gradually became permanent kingship.

What significant change happened to kingship in some Sumerian city-states before 2450 B.C.E.?

Kings began transferring their kingship to their sons, establishing patriarchal hereditary dynasties.

What was the symbol of royal status in Sumerian society?

The palace, which rivaled the temple in grandeur.

How did kings maintain their power in Sumer?

Kings relied on alliances, military might, and ideas about their connection with the gods. They worked with priests and officials to use force, persuasion, and taxation to maintain order.

How was land distributed in Sumerian society?

Kings and officials, as well as the temple, held extensive tracts of land worked by clients or dependent individuals. Some individuals owned land outright and paid taxes in agricultural products or goods.

What was the role of enslaved people in Sumerian society?

Enslaved people, often prisoners of war or criminals, worked alongside dependent clients. They engaged in trade, could borrow money, and many could eventually buy their freedom.

How were women's roles and rights distinguished in Sumerian society?

Women, especially those who were priestesses or queens, could run their own estates, own businesses, and manage property. Daughters received dowries which were managed by their husbands' families after marriage.

What was the impact of Sumerian society on its neighbors?

The Sumerians established key social, economic, and intellectual patterns that influenced neighboring regions to the north and east.

What kind of cultural artifacts from the Paleolithic era have been found?

Flutes, carvings, jewelry, and cave paintings depicting animals, people, and symbols.

How did Paleolithic people view supernatural forces?

They may have developed ideas about supernatural forces controlling aspects of the natural world and humans.

What was the estimated human population about 30,000 years ago?

Approximately 500,000.

How did the human population change by 10,000 years ago?

It grew to about 5 million, a tenfold increase.

How did the low population density in the Paleolithic era affect the environment?

Human impact on the environment was relatively small, though still significant.

What was the basic way of life for most of human history?

Foraging

What did fertile areas allow people to do in terms of lifestyle?

Become more settled and develop sedentary or semi-sedentary lifestyles

What evidence indicates people were becoming more sedentary?

Storage pits and grindstones

What does "domestication" of crops involve?

Modifying plants through selective breeding to serve human needs

What is the correct order of events regarding crop raising and sedentism?

People became sedentary before intentionally raising crops

Where did intentional crop planting first develop?

The Fertile Crescent

What other regions followed the pattern of sedentism before domestication?

Nile River Valley, western Africa, China, India, Papua New Guinea, Mesoamerica

Which animals were first domesticated around the same time as crop raising?

Dogs, goats, and sheep

What new lifestyle emerged from domesticating animals like goats and sheep?

Pastoralism

How did domesticated large animals impact human societies?

They increased power for tasks, impacting both immediate societies and those they later encountered

What role did domesticated animals play in war and transport?

They were used for destruction in war as well as food production and transport

What demographic factors contributed to the shift from hunting and gathering to domestication?

Population growth, lower child mortality, longer life spans, and higher fertility rates

How did the development of mush from grains affect women's breastfeeding practices?

Women could stop breastfeeding earlier, leading to more frequent childbirths

What was the solution to food scarcity in sedentary villages?

Plant and animal domestication to increase the food supply

What were some animals depicted on the pillars at Göbekli Tepe?

Lions, boars, foxes, snakes, vultures, and scorpions.

What was the primary purpose of the massive pillars at Göbekli Tepe?

They had symbolic, cultural, or possibly religious importance.

How did the construction of Göbekli Tepe impact the people living nearby?

It may have encouraged them to adopt agriculture to stay near the site.

How did the adoption of agriculture change the diet of people living near Göbekli Tepe?

They transitioned from foraging wild game and plants to cultivating crops.

What was the "Agricultural Revolution" or "Neolithic Revolution"?

The transition from Paleolithic foraging to Neolithic agriculture, marking a major change in human history.

How did agriculture compare to foraging in terms of food yield?

Agriculture yielded ten to one hundred times more food in calories than foraging.

What was one downside of farming compared to foraging?

Farming required much more labor, often from dawn to dusk.

How did agriculture affect social structures and hierarchies?

It led to more complex social hierarchies based on wealth and power.

How did the development of plows impact Neolithic communities?

Plows allowed for the production of surplus food, leading to increased division of labor and specialization.

How did the use of animals in agriculture contribute to social hierarchies?

Those who controlled the labor of others and material goods could amass wealth and power, reinforcing social hierarchies.

What role did enslaved people play in early agricultural societies?

They provided additional physical power for their enslavers, contributing to wealth and influence.

How did the division of labor change with the advent of agriculture?

It led to specialized roles in tool-making, construction, and food production, increasing community interdependence.