HINDUISM (RRES)

Indus Valley Civilization

Productive region near the Indus River around 2000 BCE; real name remains unknown due to lack of archaeological evidence; marked by uniformity in engineering and architecture

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

The two major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization

Pashupati Seal

Early religious artifact from the Indus Valley showing a figure seated with legs crossed; considered one of the earliest forms of Hindu deity Shiva

Aryans

Nomadic herding people who identified themselves as "noble ones"; spoke Sanskrit; believed to have come from Central Asia; their original homeland is debated (possibly Turkey or another part of India)

Sanskrit

The language spoken by the Aryans

Vedas

Means "knowledge"; most valued scriptures in Hinduism; written between 2000 BCE and 400 BCE (though first ones may be a thousand years earlier); orally transmitted and recited by priests

Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda

The four major Vedas

Rig Veda

Means "Veda of verses or praise"; most important of the 4 Vedas; anthology of about 1000 hymns for Aryan gods; comparable to the Psalms in the Bible

Yajur Veda

Collection of rituals and directions for sacrifices to the gods

Sama Veda

Collection of verses from the Rig Veda arranged musically

Atharva Veda

Collection of spells, incantations, and charms for home use

Upanishads

Means "to sit nearby" (referring to students sitting at the feet of their spiritual teachers); the philosophical utterances and most important part of the Vedas; answers questions like "What is ultimate reality?" and "Who am I?"

Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads

The four parts that each Veda is divided into

Brahman

The ultimate reality; infinite, eternal, beyond knowing and communicability; genderless; not a god in the ultimate sense; omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient, and indescribable

Atman

The eternal soul that every living being has; one with Brahman; human ignorance is what separates the atman from Brahman; described as smaller than a grain of rice yet larger than all the worlds

Relationship between Atman and Brahman

Atman is the individual eternal soul, and Brahman is the ultimate reality; they are ultimately one, but human ignorance creates the illusion of separation

Karma

Means "action"; the law of cause and effect in the cosmos; determines one's future rebirth; can be good or bad; not simply punishment; one's actions determine one's form at rebirth (e.g., animal or human)

Samsara

Means "flowing on"; the endless cycle of rebirth where the atman re-enters life in another body (not necessarily human) based on accumulated karma; repeats until moksha is attained

Moksha

Liberation from the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara); the ultimate spiritual goal; achieved by preventing the accumulation of any karma (good or bad); the atman becomes one with Brahman and is never reborn

Monotheistic

Hinduism is classified as ______, wherein they worship multiple devas/deities but still only have one true God

"ONE"

What the man who travelled through India and documented all deities wrote at the bottom of his list of 330 million deities

Trimurti

Means "three forms" or the trinity of God: Brahma (creation), Vishnu (preservation), and Shiva (destruction)

Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva

The three gods that make up the Trimurti

Creation of the Trimurti gods according to the Puranas

Brahman created Shiva, then Shiva created Vishnu, then from a lotus flower associated with the navel of Vishnu came Brahma

Brahma

Depicted with 4 heads and a beard; origin of the 4 Vedas; shown with 4 arms; worship is rare because the act of creation is considered complete

Vishnu

The kind overseer of the universe who entered humanity when threatened by evil forces; incarnated as Krishna and Rama (heroes of the Mahabharata and Ramayana); the preserver in the Trimurti

Shiva

Both destructive and creative; uses immense power to fight evil and protect followers; associated with sexual power symbolizing creative energy that sustains the cosmos; devotees believe through him they can transcend the bondage of karma

Avatar

Sanskrit word meaning "descent"; spiritually refers to the manifestation of a deity into human form

Caste System

Social stratification organized based on occupations; from the Portuguese word "casta" meaning pure; implies the necessity of not mixing different groups

Varna

The Sanskrit word used to refer to social stratification; means "color" and later evolved to mean "class"

Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras

The four classes (varnas) in the Hindu caste system based on the Rig Veda

Brahmins

Priests and sages; the highest class in the caste system; they formulated the laws to preserve the system

Kshatriyas

Warriors; the second class in the caste system

Vaishyas

Producers such as bankers, merchants, and farmers; the third class in the caste system

Shudras

Servants; the fourth class in the caste system

Jati

Birth or occupational groups that developed within the varna system; emphasizes the hereditary nature of labor; basis for the multi-level caste system; social interaction and marriage were limited to members of the same jati

Dalits / Untouchables

Those classified outside the four classes; considered polluted because their occupations (e.g., working with corpses/cremation) involved dealing with death; touching dead bodies was severely punishable; also called Harijan ("children of God")

Preservation of the caste system

The Brahmins invoked the Upanishads and declared that any attempt to change one's caste would result in great bad karma and possibly rebirth into an even worse lif

Caste system as a reason for India's status

Many scholars point to the caste system as a major reason why India remains a third world country

Yoga

Means "to yoke or to join"; refers to the union of the atman (individual soul) to Brahman (ultimate soul); most known Hindu concept; physical exercise + spiritual practice; practitioner is called a yogi

Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and Jnana Yoga

The three most widely recognized paths (yogas/margas) in Hinduism

Marga

Another Sanskrit word for "path" that is sometimes used instead of yoga

Karma Yoga

The most common path for Hindus; duty-based; involves living in accordance with dharma (determined by gender, caste, and stage of life) and following the Laws of Manu; doing your best to be a good Hindu

Bhakti Yoga

The path of devotion to a personal deity; based on practices in the Vedas of sacrificing to various gods; became prominent with the Bhagavad Gita and deities Shiva and Vishnu; includes puja, pilgrimages, and festivals

Puja

Expression of devotion; considered a daily activity in Hinduism; includes worship at temples and pilgrimage to holy sites

Jnana Yoga

The path of knowledge/meditation leading to an experience of the ultimate; includes repetition of a mantra; requires a strict process of physical, spiritual, mental, and moral discipline

Om / Aum

Sacred sound and ancient mantra based on the Rig Veda; in the Upanishads, it is the representation of Brahma through sound; used for concentration in meditation

Guru

Spiritual teacher required for serious practice of bhakti and jnana yoga; shown devotion through kissing feet, prostration, and offering gifts; leads the yogi towards enlightenment

Hatha Yoga

The specific kind of physical yoga involving complex contortions and postures; just one aspect of the wider phenomenon of yoga

Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha

The four aims of life according to Hinduism

Dharma

The proper order of the cosmos and the principles of conduct applied by the cosmos; righteousness, moral duty, and living in harmony with cosmic and social order

Artha

Material prosperity, wealth, and success; pursued responsibly; Hinduism recognizes this need, especially when one is married with familial responsibilities

Kama

Desire, pleasure, and love (including sexual fulfillment); guided by dharma; proper when one is married with familial responsibilities

Renouncing Artha and Kama

What Hindus must renounce in order to attain moksha according to the Upanishads

Performing actions without desire

How one can prevent accumulating karma according to the Upanishads; actions done without desire are not motivated by good or bad intention and therefore create no karma

Constant re-death and likely worse rebirth

Why being constantly reincarnated (samsara) is seen as undesirable by Hindus

Ganges River

The most popular pilgrim site for Hindus; first among seven sacred rivers in India; believed to be a goddess herself; Hindus bathe in it for life-giving and cleansing purposes

Cows in Hinduism

Venerated as representations of all non-human life; promoted as encouraging an attitude of giving freely; the cow is seen as the mother of all humanity; protected for symbolic and practical reasons (dung used as fuel, fertilizer, disinfectant)

Kamadhenu

The mother goddess associated with cows; symbolizes the cow's divine status in Hinduism

Diwali

Festival of lights celebrated in the autumn; associated with bhakti yoga and devotion to deities

Jagannath Temple

Located in Puri, India; preserves an image of Vishnu in the form of god Jagannath; once a year, the image is paraded in a vehicle called a "juggernaut" in English

omnipotent

One of Brahman’s aspects, meaning having total and unlimited power

omnipresent

One of Brahman’s aspects, meaning existing in all places at the same time

omniscient

One of Brahman’s aspects, meaning knowing everything, past present and future

Laws of Manu

A collection of ethical and religious guidelines for individuals and societies; stands at the heart of the Hindu caste system and dictates dharma for karma yoga

Krishna and Rama

The incarnations (avatars) of Vishnu; they are the respective heroes of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana

Casta

The Portuguese word meaning "pure" that gave rise to the term "caste"; came from the 16th-century Portuguese occupation of India

Rig Veda and Laws of Manu

The writings that stand at the heart of the Hindu caste system and founded its social stratification

Brahman

The ultimate reality defined by the Upanishads as the source of all reality; the quest for mythical knowledge that is the source of all reality began with the Upanishads

After reaching enlightenment

The yogi reaches the goal and the door beyond rebirth is opened; they continue to live until all past actions are cleansed, and upon death, the atman is liberated from samsara

Hinduism

One of the world's oldest religions; a way of life centered on dharma, karma, and the pursuit of moksha; guides followers through duty, devotion, and ultimate liberation

Bhagavad Gita

The text that made bhakti yoga prominent; along with the emergence of Shiva and Vishnu as principal deities

Hindu calendar festivals

Specific dates each year for worshipping deities in special ways; most dates vary each year as the lunar calendar is taken into consideration

Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma

Order of how the trimurti were made

Puri, India

Location of the Jagannath Temple which preserves an image of Vishnu as god Jagannath

Juggernaut

The English term for the special vehicle used to parade the image of Jagannath once a year

Spiritual cleansing

What is required when touching dead bodies; based on Hindu tradition, touching corpses causes pollution that is severely punishable

Untouchables / Dalits

The group classified outside the four varna classes; also called Harijan ("children of God") or oppressed

Ritual impurity

What results from touching a member of a lower caste according to brahmin-formulated laws

Hereditary nature of labor

What the jati system emphasizes; particular occupations are kept within specific families or clans