Psychology: Gateway to mind and behavior Chapter 1

Animal model

in research, an animal whose behavior is used to derive principles that may apply to human behavior

anthropomorphic error

error of attributing thoughts and feelings to animals, especially in a way to explain their behavior

barnum effect

the tendency to consider a personal description accurate if it is stated in gereal terms

behaviorism

school of psychology that emphasizes the study of overt, observable behavior

biased sample

subpart of a population that doesn't accurately reflect the characteristics of the whole

biological perspective

the attempt to explain behavior in terms of underlying biological principles

case study

an in-depth focus on all aspects of a single person

causation

act of causing an effect

clinical method

studying psychological problems and therapies in clinical settings

clinical psychologist

A psychologist who specializes in the treatment of psychological and behavioral disturbances or who does research on such disturbances.

coefficient of correlation

A statistical index ranging from −1.00 to +1.00 that indicates the direction and degree of correlation.

cognitive behaviorism

An approach that combines behavioral principles with cognition (perception, thinking, anticipation) to explain behavior.

confirmation bias

The tendency to remember or notice information that fits one's expectations but to forget discrepancies.

control

altering conditions that influence behavior

control group

In a controlled experiment, the group of subjects exposed to all experimental conditions or variables except the independent variable.

correlation

The existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables.

correlation method

making measurements to discover relationships between events

correlation study

A nonexperimental study designed to measure the degree of relationship (if any) between two or more events, measures, or variables.

counseling psychologist

A psychologist who specializes in the treatment of milder emotional and behavioral disturbance

counselor

A mental health professional who specializes in helping people with problems not involving serious mental disorder; for example, marriage counselors, career counselors, or school counselors.

critical thinking

A type of reflection involving the support of beliefs through scientific explanation and observation.

cultural relativity

The idea that behavior must be judged relative to the values of the culture in which it occurs

dependent variable

In an experiment, the condition (usually a behavior) that is affected by the independent variable.

description

the process of naming and classifying

determinism

The idea that all behavior has prior causes that would completely explain one's choices and actions if all such causes were known.

double blind experiment

the experimenter and participants are unaware of which is the drug and which is the placebo in the experiment

evolutionary psychology

study of how human evolution and genetics might explain our current behavior

experiment

A formal trial undertaken to confirm or disconfirm a hypothesis about cause and effect.

experimental group

the group of subjects exposed to the independent variable or experimental condition.

experimental method

Investigating causes of behavior through controlled experimentation.

experimental subjects

"participants" or animals whose behavior is investigated in an experiment

extraneous variables

Conditions or factors excluded from influencing the outcome of an experiment.

free will

The idea that human beings are capable of freely making choices or decisions.

functionalism

he school of psychology concerned with how behavior and mental abilities help people adapt to their environments.

gender bias

tendency for females to be underrepresented

gestalt psychology

emphasizes the study of thinking, learning, as a whole and not into parts

humanism

focuses on human experience and potential

hypothesis

statement of predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated guess

independent variable

In an experiment, the condition being investigated as a possible cause of some change in behavior. The values that this variable takes are chosen by the experimenter.

introspection

to look within

meta-analysis

technique for combining results of many studies on the same subject

natural clinical test

An accident or other natural event that allows the gathering of data on a psychological phenomenon of interest.

natural selection

Darwin's theory that evolution favors those plants and animals best suited to their living conditions.

naturalisti observation

observing behavior as it unfolds

negative correlation

A statistical relationship in which increases in one measure are matched by decreases in the other.

Neo-Freudian

psychologist who accepts the broad featuresof Freud's theory but has revised the theory to fit his or her own concepts.

Neuroscience

The broader field of biopsychologists and others who study the brain and nervous system, such as biologists and biochemists.

observational record

A detailed summary of observed events or a videotape of observed behavior.

observer bias

The tendency of an observer to distort observations or perceptions to match his or her expectations

observer effect

Changes in a subject's behavior brought about by an awareness of being observed.

operational definition

Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. For example, "hunger" might be defined as "the number of hours of food deprivation."

placebo

An inactive substance given in the place of a drug in psychological research or by physicians who wish to treat a complaint by suggestion.

placebo effect

Changes in behavior due to participants' expectations that a drug (or other treatment) will have some effect.

population

An entire group of animals or people belonging to a particular category (for example, all college students or all married women).

positive correlation

A statistical relationship in which increases in one measure are matched by increases in the other (or decreases correspond with decreases).

positive psychology

The study of human strengths, virtues, and effective functioning.

prediction

An ability to accurately forecast behavior.

pseudopsychology

Any false and unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behavior.

psychiatric social worker

A mental health professional trained to apply social science principles to help patients in clinics and hospitals.

psychiatrist

A medical doctor with additional training in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders.

psychoanalysis

A Freudian approach to psychotherapy emphasizing the exploration of unconscious conflicts.

psychoanalyst

A mental health professional (usually a medical doctor) trained to practice psychoanalysis.

psychodynamic theory

Any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces.

psychological perspective

The traditional view that behavior is shaped by psychological processes occurring at the level of the individual.

psychologist

A person highly trained in the methods, factual knowledge, and theories of psychology.

psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

random assignment

The use of chance (for example, flipping a coin) to assign subjects to experimental and control groups.

representative sample

A small, randomly selected part of a larger population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole population.

repression

The unconscious process by which memories, thoughts, or impulses are held out of awareness.

research method

a systematic approach to answering scientific questions

research participant bias

Changes in the behavior of research participants caused by the unintended influence of their own expectations.

researcher bias

Changes in participants' behavior caused by the unintended influence of a researcher's actions.

response

Any muscular action, glandular activity, or other identifiable aspect of behavior.

scientific method

A form of critical thinking based on careful measurement and controlled observation.

scientific observation

An empirical investigation structured to answers questions about the world in a systematic and intersubjective fashion (observations can be reliably confirmed by multiple observers)

self-actualization

The ongoing process of fully developing one's personal potential.

self-fulfilling prophecy

A prediction that prompts people to act in ways that make the prediction come true.

single-blind experiment

An arrangement in which participants remain unaware of whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.

social norms

Rules that define acceptable and expected behavior for members of a group.

sociocultural perspective

The focus on the importance of social and cultural contexts in influencing the behavior of individuals.

statistical significance

Experimental results that would rarely occur by chance alone.

stimulus

any physical energy sensed by an organism

structuralism

The school of thought concerned with analyzing sensations and personal experience into basic elements.

superstition

unfounded belief held without evidence or in spite of falsifying evidence

survey

In psychology, a public polling technique used to answer psychological questions.

survey method

using questionnaires and surveys to poll large groups of people

theory

A system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations.

unconscious

Contents of the mind that are beyond awareness, especially impulses and desires not directly known to a person

uncritical acceptance

The tendency to believe claims because they seem true or because it would be nice if they were true.

understanding

is achieved when the causes of a behavior can be stated.

variable

Any condition that changes or can be made to change; a measure, event, or state that may vary.