Unit 1: Research Methods and Data Analysis

Quantitative Data

Information expressed in numbers, counts, or measurements

Qualitative Data

Non-numerical information describing qualities, characteristics, and opinions

True Experiment

An experiment characterized by manipulation of an independent variable (IV) by the researcher, presence of a control group for comparison, and random assignment of participants to experimental or control group

Quasi-Experiment

An experiment that tries to establish cause-and-effect like a true experiment but lacks random assignment and uses pre-existing conditions

Experimental Hypothesis

Predicts the relationship between IV and DV (what we expect from manipulating the IV)

Null Hypothesis

States that IV will NOT affect DV or any change is due to chance (what we're trying to prove false - we want to REJECT this)

One-Tailed Hypothesis

A hypothesis that has a specific direction or outcome, e.g., 'Physical exercise improves mood'

Two-Tailed Hypothesis

A hypothesis that does not state a specific direction, just implies a potential relationship either way, e.g., 'Sleep deprivation affects reaction time'

Control Variables

All variables besides IV that stay the same in an experiment

Control Group

A group where IV is NOT manipulated, but DV is still tested

Standardization

Experiments should be highly standardized, meaning easily replicable/reliable

Internal Validity

Is the IV the ONLY variable causing change in the DV, or are there confounding variables?

Confounding Variable

An extra variable that could distort the relationship between IV and DV

Participant Variables

Variables participants bring with them; need to be controlled beforehand

Threats to Internal Validity

Order Effect

External Validity

The extent to which study results can be generalized beyond specific conditions to other people, settings, times, and measures

Construct Validity

Does the experiment measure what it's intended to measure?

Independent Samples Design

Participants randomly allocated to ONE condition

Match Pairs Design

One sample of participants receives EACH condition

Self-Selected Sample

Volunteers responding to request for participants (also called volunteer sampling)

Opportunity Sampling

Participants selected based on convenience and availability

Random Sampling

Every member of target population has EQUAL chance of being selected

Stratified Sampling

Considers diversity by random sampling each subpopulation of a population

Snowball Sampling

Participants recruit other participants; sample grows like a snowball rolling downhill

WEIRD Sampling

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic - represents limited perspective in psychological research

Naturalistic Observation

Observing in a natural environment

Controlled Observation

Observing in a lab setting

Overt Observation

Participant IS aware of researcher's presence

Covert Observation

Participant is NOT aware of researcher's presence

Participant Observation

Researcher IS part of the observed group

Non-Participant Observation

Researcher is SEPARATE from the observed group

Event Sampling

Researcher only notes/collects data when observing the specific behavior being studied

Point Sampling

Researcher notes each participant's behavior then moves to next participant

Time Sampling

Researcher notes behavior of sample at regular time intervals

Structured Interview

Follows strict set of predetermined questions in specific order

Semi-Structured Interview

Balance between structure and flexibility

Focus Group

Group interview (5-10 people) studying what people think/feel about a topic

Interview Guide

Ensures key topics are covered while allowing flexibility

Pilot Interview

Tests the effectiveness of an interview

Open-Ended Questions

Must be answerable descriptively; NO yes/no questions

Interviewer Effects

Influence of interviewer's behavior, characteristics, or attitudes on participants' responses

Descriptive Questions

Invites general account of something

Contrast Questions

Allows participants to compare events/experiences

Structural Questions

Explores responses to descriptive questions

Evaluative Questions

Asks about respondent's feelings

Verbatim

Writing interviewee's responses word-for-word exactly as said

Post Modern

Includes pauses, interruptions, intonation, volume, incomplete sentences, false starts, laughter

Active Listening

Encourages interviewee and seeks clarity; researcher restates participant's comments and integrates into later questions

Thematic Analysis

Identifying key themes, concepts, and categories in data

Emergent Themes

Themes that spring from transcript and capture something essential about it

Interpretation

Given to participant to confirm it reasonably reflects original interview (increases credibility)

Demand Characteristics

Participants guess study's purpose and change behavior

Expectancy Effect

Participants' expectations influence their behavior

Social Desirability Bias

Responding in socially acceptable way rather than truthfully

Recency Bias

More recent information has greater impact

Acquiescence Bias

Tendency to agree with statements

Screw-You Effect

Participants deliberately sabotage study

Reactivity

Changes in behavior due to being observed

Social Sensitivity Issues

Research on controversial topics

Placebo Effect

Improvement from believing treatment works

Nocebo Effect

Negative effects from believing treatment is harmful

Fatigue Effect

Performance declines due to tiredness

Interference Effect

Previous learning interferes with new learning

Order Effect

Order of conditions affects results

Practice Effect

Improvement due to repeated exposure

Cognitive Dissonance

Mental discomfort from holding contradictory beliefs

Test-Retest Reliability

Consistency of results over time

Triangulation

Using multiple methods/sources to increase validity

Methodological Triangulation

Using multiple methods to increase validity

Data Triangulation

Using multiple data sources to increase validity

Researcher Triangulation

Using multiple researchers to increase validity

Theoretical Triangulation

Using multiple theories to increase validity

Generalization

The process of applying findings from a sample to a larger population

Representational Generalization

Applying findings from one group to another similar group

Inferential Generalization

Applying findings from a sample to a wider population

Theoretical Generalization

Applying findings to a broader theory

Methodological Considerations/Issues

Factors that effect the design and procedure of the experiment.

Participant Biases

Demand Characteristics, Expectancy Effect, Social Desirability Bias, Recency Bias, Acquiescence Bias

Extraneous Variables

any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study

Facilitator

One who guides a group experience

Questionnaire

Any written set of questions to collect qualitative data regarding a person's opinions and/or attitudes. Generally, they are sent out to the interviewee in advance.

Survey

It is both a set of questions and the process of collecting, aggregating, and analyzing the responses to those questions

Likert Scale

a numerical scale used to assess people's attitudes; it includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme

Non-Responce Bias

Occurs when individuals who choose not to respond to certain questions differ in a meaningful way from those who do respond.

Case Study

In-depth study of an individual or a small group

Longitudinal

A case study that takes place over a significant time

Retrospective

A case study that, for example, collects data about childhood experiences

Prospective

A case study that looks at what will happen to a case from this point forward

Idiographic Approach

This approach focuses on understanding individuals in their unique context. They often attempt to resolve a problem or better understand a specific case. Its goal is not to generalize the findings but to investigate the program's effectiveness in that specific location

Nomothetic Approach

This approach focuses on more general phenomena of interest (such as losing a child, being homeless, or being diagnosed with cancer). It aims to draw conclusions that may be applied outside of that original case.