Chapter 5 - Operant Learning

How is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning?

With Pavlovian conditioning, organisms experience the outcome (US) regardless of whether they perform the CR while with operant learning experiencing the outcome depends on the organism having performed and response

Pavlovian is built upon reflexive responses (happen automatically) while operant learning is when the behavior is emitted and controlled by consequences

Define reinforcement, including Catania’s three characteristics

Reinforcement: an increase in the strength of behavior due to its consequence

Characteristics: a behavior must have a consequence, the behavior must increase in strength, the increase in strength must arise from the consequence

Define and provide an example of positive reinforcement

Positive reinforcement: a stimulus is added to increase a behavior

Example: teacher yelling at student being disruptive and the child being even more disruptive

Are rewards the same as reinforcers? Why or why not?

No because rewards don’t necessarily affect behavior while reinforcers increase the probability of that behavior and are delivered after a behavior

How does Law of Effect describe what makes something a reinforcer? What are the strengths and weaknesses?

Thorndike describes reinforcers as “satisfiers” which are anything that strengthens responding

Weakness: can not predict satisfier until it strengthens the response

Strengths: began the development of understanding operant learning

How does Drive-Reduction describe what makes something a reinforcer? What are the strengths and weaknesses?

Hull describes a reinforcer as anything that reduces the drive (being deprived of food creates a hunger drive to solve that hunger)

Weaknesses: A rat not deprived of water will drink water and monkeys would do things to watch a train go around a track such as flipping a light switch w/o anything happening

Strengths: works well for things that are tied to physiological states

How does Premack Principle describe what makes something a reinforcer? What are the strengths and weaknesses?

Relative values determine what behavior will be reinforcing

Strengths: shifted focus from stimulus to behavior

Weaknesses: preference for activity may diminish overtime if used too frequently

How does Response-Deprivation describe what makes something a reinforcer? What are the strengths and weaknesses?

Behavior becomes reinforcing when it is restricted below baseline levels

Strengths: can apply to a wider variety

Weaknesses: oversimplifying the reinforcement process by making any behavior a possible reinforcer

Which/how behaviors will reinforce other behaviors using the Premack Principle

Any behavior that the organism engages in for a longer period of time should reinforce anything that was spent less time on

Which/how behaviors will reinforce other behaviors using the Response-Deprivation

Having an organism do a behavior then rewarding it with a behavior it likes to do but only for enough time for the behavior it is rewarded for passes the amount of time the organism typically does

Identify the structures referred to as the brain’s pleasure centers

Ventral tegmental area (VTA) which flows through to the frontal cortex

Substantia nigra pars compacta which flows through to the dorsal striatum

What are the neurotransmitters associated with wanting and describe the supporting experimental evidence

Wanting refers to motivational value and is associated with the neurotransmitter dopamine

Salamone et al. (2002): rats like sugar pellets but with dopamine antagonists they will not work to get the sugar pellets like pulling a lever because dopamine controls motivation while they ate the freely available chow in higher numbers compared to the control

What are the neurotransmitters associated with liking and describe the supporting experimental evidence

Liking refers to hedonic value and is associated with endogenous opioids

Rats given opioid antagonists choose sweetened water less often than control rats

Define contiguity in operant learning and how it impacts operant learning

Time interval between behavior and reinforcer (shorter intervals result in faster learning)

How does contiguity explain superstitious behavior?

Behavior and reinforcer occur close together in time (contiguity) and this results in an “accidental” association between behavior and outcome so the behavior continues even thought it does not produce the reinforcers that maintain it (results from contiguity without contingency)

Define contingency and describe how it effects operant learning

The more reliably a reinforcer follows a behavior the more it strengthens the behavior

p(reinforcer/response) > p(reinforcer/no response) strengthens the behavior/response

How do reinforcer quality and quantity influence operant learning?

Higher quality (more preferred) reinforcers are more effective

Large reinforcers are generally more effective than small reinforcers

Describe reinforcement contrast effects

Large rewards are especially good after consistent reinforcement of a small reward

Small rewards are especially bad after consistent reinforcement with a large reward

Define preparedness and describe how it impacts operant learning

Similar to belongingness, evolved tendencies can make reinforcement of behavior more or less difficult

It is easy to get a pigeon to peck for food because pecking is evolutionarily tied to food while it would be difficult to get them to peck to avoid a shock

How does the work of Breland and Breland demonstrate preparedness?

They were trying to train animals using reinforcers that were mismatched evolutionarily and used the book The Misbehavior of Organisms to learn this

Define and give an example of establishing operations

Increase the effectiveness of a reinforcer, making the behavior that produces the reinforcer more likely

Trying to teach an autistic child to ask for water by giving them crackers so they’ll become thirsty and have to ask for water

Define and give an example of abolishing operations

Decrease the effectiveness of a reinforcer, making the behavior that produces the reinforcer less likely

Food wouldn’t work as a reinforcer if they were full after just eating

Define and provide an example of primary reinforcers

Innately effective and do not need to be learned; food, water, sex, sleep

Define and provide an example of secondary/conditioned reinforcers

Not innate and must be learned through pairing with primary or other established reinforcers; a click and food each time a rat correctly sniffs out a land mine

Define and provide an example of generalized reinforcers

Not innate and must be learned and paired with many different kinds of reinforcers; money, tokens, reward points

Contrast natural and contrived reinforcers

Natural reinforcers: automatic and spontaneously follow behavior (opening the window and air comes inside)

Contrived reinforcers: mediated by another person and often (but not always) delivered with the purpose of modifying behavior (coming to work and getting paid)

How are positive and negative reinforcement similar? How are they different?

Similarities: Behavior is more likely to occur in the future

Differences: Negative reinforcement removed a stimulus following a behavior while positive is when a stimulus is presented following a behavior

Define escape and avoidance

Escape: behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus that was already present when the behavior occurred (having a headache but taking advil to relieve the headache)

Avoidance: behavior prevents the presentation of an aversive stimulus (taking advil after drinking so you don’t get a hangover)

How does two-factor theory describe avoidance behavior?

The first process is pavlovian conditioning while the second is operant conditioning where the organism response is to escape the CS to reduce the CR

How does one-factor theory describe avoidance behavior?

Contingency-based operant learning; responding = reduced exposure to shock

What are the weaknesses of the two-factor theory?

There is no extinction of the behavior