AP Biology Ultimate Guide

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Elements

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95 Terms

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Elements

Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means, such as oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N).

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Trace Elements

Elements required by an organism in very small quantities, like iron (Fe), iodine (I), and copper (Cu).

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Atoms

The unit of life and building blocks of the physical world, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

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Compounds

Consist of two or more elements held together by chemical bonds like ionic, covalent, or hydrogen bonds.

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Water

A versatile molecule with unique properties due to hydrogen bonds, including cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension.

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Acids and Bases

Solutions can be acidic (lots of H+ ions), basic (lots of OH- ions), or neutral (pH 7), measured on a pH scale.

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Organic Molecules

Molecules containing carbon, essential for life, forming polymers like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

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Carbohydrates

Organic compounds with a ratio of 1:2:1 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, categorized as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides.

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Proteins

Important for structure and function, made of amino acids, with different categories based on side chain polarity.

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Lipids

Consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, including triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids, serving various functions in the body.

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Nucleic Acids

Molecules made of nucleotides, like DNA and RNA, containing genetic information and essential for protein synthesis.

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Cell Surface Markers

Glycoproteins and glycolipids exposed on the extracellular surface of cells, involved in cell recognition and adhesion.

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Nucleus

Largest organelle directing cell activities, housing DNA organized into chromosomes, and containing the nucleolus for ribosome assembly.

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Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis, composed of large and small subunits, can be free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Continuous channel providing support and transportation, rough ER with ribosomes and smooth ER synthesizing lipids and detoxifying.

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Golgi Complex

Modifies, processes, and sorts proteins synthesized by ribosomes, packages products into vesicles for distribution.

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Mitochondria

Power stations converting organic molecules into ATP, with inner and outer membranes, cristae, and matrix.

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Lysosomes

Organelles containing digestive enzymes to break down organelles, debris, or particles, essential in apoptosis.

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Vacuoles

Fluid-filled sacs storing various substances in plant cells.

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Peroxisomes

Organelles detoxifying substances, producing hydrogen peroxide, and breaking it down into oxygen and water.

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Cytoskeleton

Network of protein fibers determining cell shape, including microtubules and microfilaments for cellular division and movement.

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Plant Cells

Differ from animal cells with a cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole, and absence of centrioles.

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Passive Transport

Movement of substances across the membrane without energy input, including simple and facilitated diffusion.

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Osmosis

Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane, influenced by tonicity and water potential.

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Active Transport

Movement of substances against the concentration gradient, requiring energy input, such as the sodium-potassium pump.

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Endocytosis

Process of engulfing substances by the cell membrane to form vesicles, including pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

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Exocytosis

Process of expelling waste or secretion products from the cell by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.

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Bioenergetics

Study of how cells obtain and use energy.

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Enzymes

Biological catalysts speeding up reactions by lowering activation energy, with specificity, active sites, and induced-fit.

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Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and enzyme regulation influencing reaction rates.

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Allosteric Inhibitor

An inhibitor that binds to an allosteric site on an enzyme, causing a change in the enzyme's shape and preventing it from functioning at its active site.

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Noncompetitive Inhibition

A type of inhibition where the inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site of the enzyme, distorting its shape and hindering its catalytic activity.

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ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

A molecule consisting of adenosine bonded to three phosphates, storing a significant amount of energy in its phosphate bonds.

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Cellular Respiration

The process of breaking down sugar to produce ATP, occurring in the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration).

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Photosynthesis

The process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy, involving the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen in the presence of sunlight.

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Chloroplast

Organelles found in plant cells where photosynthesis takes place, containing structures like the stroma, grana, and thylakoids.

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Glycolysis

The initial stage of aerobic respiration where glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid, producing ATP and NADH in the cytoplasm.

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Krebs Cycle

Also known as the citric acid cycle, a stage of aerobic respiration occurring in the mitochondria where acetyl-CoA is combined with oxaloacetate to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

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Oxidative Phosphorylation

The final stage of aerobic respiration involving the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis to produce ATP by utilizing the energy from high-energy electrons.

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Chemiosmosis

The process where a proton gradient is used to generate ATP by allowing hydrogen ions to diffuse back into the matrix through ATP synthase, occurring in both photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

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Glycolysis

The process of breaking down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP, pyruvates, and NADH.

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Fermentation

A metabolic process that occurs in the absence of oxygen, producing either lactic acid or ethanol as byproducts.

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Cell Communication

The process by which cells detect and respond to environmental signals.

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Signal Transduction

The transmission of external signals into the cell to elicit a cellular response.

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Homeostasis

The maintenance of stable internal conditions in living organisms.

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Cell Cycle

The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication.

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Mitosis

The process of cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells.

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Haploid

A cell containing one set of chromosomes.

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Diploid

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes.

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Gregor Mendel

The father of genetics known for his work on inheritance patterns in pea plants.

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Recombination Frequency

The percentage of recombination determined by adding up recombinants and dividing by the total number of offspring.

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Recombination Mapping

Mapping of linkage groups where each map unit equals 1 percent recombination, based on the frequency of crossing-over between linked alleles.

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Sex-Linked Traits

Traits carried on sex chromosomes, such as color blindness and hemophilia, with most found on the X chromosome.

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Barr Bodies

Inactivated X chromosomes in female cells, visible as dark-staining bodies, due to X-inactivation during embryonic development.

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Inheritance Patterns

Include incomplete dominance, codominance, polygenic inheritance, and non-nuclear inheritance through mitochondria.

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Pedigrees

Special family trees showing genetic inheritance patterns, helping determine if traits are recessive, dominant, or sex-linked.

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Meiosis

The process of producing gametes involving two rounds of cell division, meiosis I and meiosis II, to create haploid cells.

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DNA Structure

DNA consists of nucleotides with deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases, forming a double helix with complementary base pairing.

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Genome Structure

All DNA in a species is its genome, organized into chromosomes wrapped around histones, forming euchromatin or heterochromatin.

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DNA Replication

The process of copying DNA involving unwinding the double helix, forming a replication fork, and synthesizing new strands using DNA polymerase.

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DNA Helicase

Enzyme that unwinds the double helix into two strands.

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DNA Polymerase

Enzyme that adds nucleotides to an existing DNA strand.

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DNA Ligase

Enzyme that brings together Okazaki fragments during DNA replication.

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Topoisomerase

Enzyme that cuts and rejoins the DNA helix to relieve tension.

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RNA Primase

Enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of RNA primers during DNA replication.

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Transcription

Process of making an RNA copy of a DNA code.

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Translation

Process of making a protein from an RNA template.

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RNA

Single-stranded nucleic acid with ribose sugar and uracil base.

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Exons

Regions in RNA that express the genetic code.

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Introns

Noncoding regions in RNA that are removed during splicing.

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Operon

Functional unit of DNA in bacteria consisting of structural genes, promoter, operator, and regulatory gene.

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Mutation

Error in the genetic code that can result from various factors.

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Recombinant DNA

DNA created by combining DNA from different sources.

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Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Laboratory technique to amplify DNA segments.

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Natural Selection

Mechanism of evolution driven by genetic variation and environmental pressures.

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Mutation

Genetic change that can be passed on to the next generation if it does not kill the organism before reproduction.

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Survival of the fittest

Concept where traits leading to better reproductive success increase evolutionary fitness.

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Sexual selection

Process where mate choice influences evolution, like females selecting males with specific traits.

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Genetic drift

Random change in genetics of a population, not driven by natural selection, includes bottleneck and founder effects.

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Gene flow

Transfer of genetic material between populations due to migration of individuals.

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Directional selection

Type of natural selection favoring individuals at one extreme of a trait.

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Divergent evolution

Process where populations become reproductively isolated and evolve into different species.

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Punctuated equilibrium

Rapid divergent evolution following a period of stability.

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Pre-zygotic barriers

Mechanisms preventing fertilization between different species.

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Post-zygotic barriers

Factors hindering hybrid organisms from producing viable offspring.

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Convergent evolution

Unrelated species develop similar traits due to shared selective pressures.

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Allopatric speciation

Population isolation by a geographic barrier leading to the formation of new species.

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Hardy-Weinberg law

States that genotype frequencies in a population remain constant if certain conditions are met.

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Endotherms

Animals generating body heat internally through metabolism.

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Imprinting

Behavior where offspring form strong attachments to the first moving object they see.

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Circadian rhythms

Internal cycles like alarm clocks in animals and plants.

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Pheromones

Chemical signals within a species affecting behavior.

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Mutualism

Symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit.

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Photoperiodism

Plant response to changes in daylight and darkness.

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Ecology

Study of interactions between living organisms and their environment.

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