Learn: Army Leadership, Psychology, and Research Methods: Key Concepts and Frameworks

Army Leadership Requirements Model

Identifies core competencies and attributes applicable to all types and echelons of Army organizations; conveys expectations and capabilities needed of all Army leaders regardless of rank, grade, uniform, or attire (ADP 6-22).

Cadet PDR (Periodic Development Review)

A vehicle for promoting meaningful counseling and reflection to aid cadet development through face-to-face communication on strengths and areas to improve.

Bloom's Taxonomy

A framework of educational objectives used to categorize levels of learning, used in PL100 to structure Performance Objectives and exam questions.

Follower

A person who supports, contributes to, and carries out the vision/goals set by a leader, playing an active role in an organization's success.

Kelley's Follower Patterns

A model classifying followers by levels of independent critical thinking and active engagement (e.g., alienated, conformist, passive, pragmatist, exemplary/effective).

Exemplary (Effective) Follower

A follower high in independent critical thinking and high in active engagement; supports the leader while offering constructive input.

Alienated Follower

A follower high in independent critical thinking but low in active engagement; often cynical and critical without constructive participation.

Conformist Follower

A follower low in independent critical thinking but high in active engagement; goes along with the leader without questioning.

Passive Follower

A follower low in both independent critical thinking and active engagement; relies on the leader to do the thinking and motivating.

Pragmatist (Survivor) Follower

A follower who plays it safe, using whatever style benefits them depending on the situation.

Effective Feedback

Feedback that is specific, timely, and constructive, helping the recipient understand and improve performance.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components (structure of the mind).

Functionalism

An early school of psychology focused on the purpose and adaptive function of behavior and mental processes.

Wilhelm Wundt

Considered the founder of psychology as a formal science; established the first psychology lab.

Variable

A factor or characteristic that can change or vary in an experiment.

Theory

A broad explanation or set of principles for observed events, used to generate hypotheses.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Operational Definition

A precise definition of a variable in terms of how it is specifically measured or manipulated in a study.

OPTIC-R

The six-step scientific method: Observe, Predict (hypothesis), Test (collect data), Interpret, Communicate, Replicate.

Observation (Research Method)

A descriptive research design involving watching and recording behavior as it naturally occurs.

Survey/Interview

A descriptive research method that gathers self-reported data from participants through questions.

Case Study

An in-depth descriptive research method examining one individual or small group in detail.

Correlational Method

A research method that examines the relationship between two variables without manipulating them; cannot establish causation.

Longitudinal Design

A research design that studies the same participants repeatedly over an extended period of time.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups by chance, so groups are equivalent, controlling for confounds.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The variable measured in an experiment to see if it is affected by the independent variable.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation being studied.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used as a baseline for comparison.

Quasi-Experimental Design

A research design similar to a true experiment but lacking random assignment to groups.

Causality (in Experiments)

The ability of a well-controlled experiment to determine that changes in the IV directly cause changes in the DV.

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study accurately demonstrates a cause-and-effect relationship without confounds.

External Validity

The degree to which study results can be generalized to other people, settings, or times.

Demand Characteristics

Cues in a study that reveal its purpose to participants, causing them to alter their natural behavior.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher's expectations unintentionally influence the outcome or interpretation of a study.

Research Participant Bias

When participants' expectations or desire to respond in a certain way influence study results.

Confound

An outside variable that varies systematically with the independent variable, muddying interpretation of results.

Placebo Effect

A change in behavior or symptoms resulting from the belief that one is receiving treatment, not the treatment itself.

Double-Blind Design

A study design where neither participants nor researchers know who is in the experimental or control group, reducing bias.

Population

The entire group of individuals a researcher is interested in studying and generalizing to.

Sample

The subset of the population that actually participates in a study.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its real-world, natural setting without interference or manipulation.

P-Value

The probability that observed results occurred by chance alone, assuming no real effect exists.

Alpha Value

The threshold (commonly 0.05) below which a p-value is considered statistically significant.

Statistical Significance

A result unlikely to have occurred by chance, though it does not automatically mean the finding is meaningful or causal.

Informed Consent

An APA ethical guideline requiring participants to be told about a study before agreeing to take part.

Confidentiality (Research Ethics)

An APA ethical guideline requiring that participants' personal information and data be protected.

Debriefing

An APA ethical guideline requiring researchers to explain the true nature/purpose of the study to participants afterward.

Deception (Research Ethics)

The APA guideline governing when and how misleading participants about a study's purpose may be ethically justified.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; processes and coordinates information throughout the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The nerves connecting the CNS to the rest of the body, including somatic and autonomic divisions.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements and transmits sensory information.

Autonomic Nervous System

The division of the PNS that controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that activates the "fight or flight" stress response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that promotes "rest and digest" and calms the body.

Neuron

A specialized cell that transmits information throughout the nervous system.

Synapse

The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that carries signals across the synapse from one neuron to another.

Plasticity (Brain)

The brain's ability to change and reorganize itself in response to experience or injury.

Limbic System

A group of brain structures involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear and threat detection.

Hippocampus

A limbic system structure critical for forming new long-term memories.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure that regulates basic bodily functions like hunger, temperature, and hormone release via the pituitary gland.

Hindbrain

The brain region including structures that control basic life functions like breathing and heart rate.

Brain Stem

The structure connecting the brain to the spinal cord, controlling basic survival functions.

Midbrain

The brain region involved in functions like eye movement and sensory relay.

Forebrain

The largest brain region, including the cerebral cortex, responsible for higher-order thinking.

Frontal Lobe

The lobe of the cerebral cortex responsible for decision-making, planning, personality, and voluntary movement (motor cortex).

Parietal Lobe

The lobe of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing touch and spatial awareness.

Temporal Lobe

The lobe of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing auditory information and some aspects of memory.

Occipital Lobe

The lobe of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing visual information.

Pituitary Gland

Often called the "master gland," it regulates other glands in the endocrine system under hypothalamus control.

Adrenal Glands

Endocrine glands that release hormones (like adrenaline) involved in the stress response.

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors detect stimuli from the environment.

Perception

The brain's process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception that starts with raw sensory input and builds up to a complete perception.

Top-Down Processing

Perception guided by prior knowledge, experience, and expectations rather than raw sensory data alone.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect it 50% of the time.

Difference Threshold (JND)

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli; the "just noticeable difference."

Weber's Law

The principle that the just noticeable difference is proportional to the intensity of the original stimulus.

Signal Detection Theory

A theory explaining how we detect a stimulus (signal) amid background noise, factoring in decision criteria.

Hit (Signal Detection)

Correctly detecting a signal that is present.

Miss (Signal Detection)

Failing to detect a signal that is actually present.

False Alarm (Signal Detection)

Reporting a signal that is not actually present.

Correct Rejection (Signal Detection)

Correctly identifying that no signal is present.

Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while filtering out others.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice a change in a visual scene.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice a fully visible object because attention was focused elsewhere.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive things a certain way based on expectations.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a result of constant, unchanging stimulation.

Retina

The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye containing rods and cones.

Rods

Retinal receptors sensitive to light/dark and motion, important for peripheral and night vision.

Cones

Retinal receptors responsible for color vision and detail, most active in bright light.

Feature Detectors

Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of a stimulus (edges, angles, movement).

Visual Cortex

The region of the occipital lobe that processes visual information.

Trichromatic Theory

The theory that color vision results from three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue light.

Opponent-Process Theory

The theory that color vision is controlled by opposing pairs of colors (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

Gestalt Psychology

A perspective emphasizing that the mind perceives whole patterns/objects rather than just individual parts.

Cochlea

The fluid-filled, spiral structure in the inner ear that converts sound vibrations into neural signals.