Terms

diction

related to style, refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness or effectiveness. Combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style. (for AP exam must be able to describe an author’s diction and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose

semantics

the branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another

connotation

the non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. May involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes

denotation

the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color

monosyllabic

one syllable in length, creates sense of urgency, less complicated

polysyllabic

more than one syllable in length, creates more difficult content

colloquial/colloquialism

the use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, it gives a work a conversational, friendly tone. Its expressions in writing include local or regional dialects

informal

conversational

formal

literary

jargon

the special language of a profession or group. Usually has performative associations with the implication that it is evasive, tedious, and unintelligible to outsiders

dialect

language spoken by people in a region or group

invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language

pedantic

an adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish

objective

impersonal, unemotional language

subjective

personal and emotional language

syntax

the way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words but diction refers to the individual words (AP exam asked how an author manipulates syntax; be able to analyze how syntax produces effects)

declarative sentence

makes a statement

imperartive sentence

gives a command

interrogative sentence

asks a question

exclamatory sentence

makes an exclamation

staccato

one to two words, abrupt

telegraphic

shorter than five words in length

medium

approximately eighteen words in length

long and involved

thirty words or more in length

rhetoric

from the Greek for “orator’, describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively. It is the art of speaking or writing effectively and persuasively, a way of manipulating people

appeal to ethos

appeal to credibility or ethics, convincing by the character of author, speaks as credible, respected authority

appeal to pathos

appeal to reader’s emotions. freedom, love, belonging, power, fun, survival, fear

appeal to logos

appeal to logic

allusion

reference to a literary work or historical event; uses power of famous literary work or historical event

rhetorical question

asks question with answer already supplied. To affirm or deny a point strongly by asking a question. Gives allusion that audience is coming up with own answer and creates an emotional response

parallel structure/parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses; same or very similar grammatical structure. Equates parts of sentences. Comes from Greek roots “beside one another”, refers to grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. Can involve repetition of a grammatical element. Effects are numerous but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm

antithesis

juxtaposition of contrasting words or ideas

repetition

for emphasis

alliteration

the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage

onomatopoeia

a figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of the words. (when you note make sure to note the effect)

euphonious

pleasant sounding, long vowels, “liquid” consonants: l, m, n, r, soft consonants: v, f, th, wh, sh, w, y

cacophonous

harsh sounding, short vowels, “positive” consonants: b, d, g, k, p, t, more challenging to say, flow is broken up by harsher sounding letters

figurative language

writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid

figure of speech

a device used to produce figurative language. many compare dissimilar things. figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement

metaphor

a figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

personification

a figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader

symbol/symbolism

generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually something concrete — such as an object, action, character, or scene — that represents something more abstract. However, can be more complex. Three categories: natural are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them

tone

similar to mood, describes author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Easier to determine in spoken language than written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author’s tone

irony/ironic

contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Often used to create poignancy or humor. Three major types: verbal (when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s meaning), situational (when events turn out the opposite of what was expected), and dramatic (when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work)

allusion

a direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical

analogy

a similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. Can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging

imagery

sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotions, or present abstractions. Physically related to five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. Deeper level one image can represent more than one thing. Author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. Term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. (for AP pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery)

anecdote

a short, simple narrative of an incident; often used for humorous effect or to make a point

juxtaposition

poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise and wit

point of view

author’s attitude

objectivity

an impersonal presentation of events and characters. Writer’s attempt to remove themselves from any subjective, personal involvement in a story

subjectivity

a personal presentation of events and characters, influenced by the author’s feelings and opinions

repetition

the duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern

style

two purposes:

1. evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. We can analyze and describe an author’s personal style and make judgements on how appropriate it is to the author’s purpose.

2. classification of authors to group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how much an author’s style reflects and helps to define a historical period or a literary movement